The Turkish Left and the Kurdish Question

Abstract

This essay examines Marxist Turkish left’s engagement with the Kurdish question in Turkey. It aims to portray, on the basis of some first-hand material, the theoretical inclinations and political attitudes of the main legal and illegal Marxist parties and organizations concerning the Kurdish question. It basically argues that the Turkish Marxists’ stressful engagement with the Kurdish question can be viewed in four periods corresponding to four conditions: encounter, union, separation, and divorce.

Acknowledgements

An earlier version of this work appeared in Murat Gültekin (ed.), Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Düşünce: Sol Düşünce, (İstanbul: İletişim, 2008), pp. 1208–1236.

Notes

1. Fuat Dündar, Türkiye Nüfus Sayımlarında Azınlıklar [Minorities in The Population Censuses in Turkey], Doz Yayınları, İstanbul, 1999.

2. The national framework introduced by the first constitution of the Turkish Republic and the Lausanne Treaty signed in 1923 was based on two main principles: the recognition of non-Muslim minorities’ right to their ethno-religious culture and the Turkification of non-Turkish Muslims of Turkey. However, while the non-Muslim citizens of the Turkish republic have had the right to reproduce their ethno-religious identity, they have constantly been subject to discrimination since the foundation of the republic.

3. For Marx’s reflections on the Holy Alliance see Karl Marx, ‘The New Holy Alliance’ [1848], in K. Marx and F. Engels, Collected Works, vol. 8. Lawrence & Wishart, London, 1977, p. 211.

4. Ian Cummins, Marx, Engels and National Movements, Croom Helm, London, 1980, p. 36.

5. Michael Löwy, ‘Marxists and the National Question’, New Left Review, No. 96, March–April 1976, p. 83.

6. K. Marx, ‘Letter To Engels [30 November 1867]’, in K. Marx and F. Engels, Collected Works, vol. 42, Lawrence & Wishart, London, 1987, pp. 484–486.

7. F. Engels, ‘Letter to Kautsky: Nationalism, Internationalism, and the Polish Question’ [7 February 1882], in K. Marx and F. Engels, Collected Works, vol. 46, Lawrence & Wishart, London, 1977, p. 191.

8. K. Marx, ‘Letter to Sigfrid Meyer and August Vogt’ [9 April 1870], in K. Marx and F. Engels, Collected Works, vol. 44, Lawrence & Wishart, London, 1989, p. 471.

9. Löwy, op. cit., p. 81.

10. F. Engels, ‘The Magyar Struggle’ [1849], in K. Marx and F. Engels, Collected Works, vol. 8, Lawrence & Wishart, London, 1977, p. 227.

11. Löwy, op. cit., p. 86.

12. Ibid., p. 94.

13. Ephraim Nimni, Marxism and Nationalism, Pluto Press, London, 1991, p. 171.

14. V. I. Lenin, ‘Cultural-National Autonomy’ [28 November 1913], in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 19, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1977, pp. 503–507 (emphasis original).

15. Ibid.

16. V. I. Lenin, ‘Critical Remarks on the National Question’ [1913], in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 20, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1964, pp. 17–51.

17. Ibid., p. 50.

18. Ibid., p. 35.

19. V. I. Lenin, ‘The Right of Nations to Self-Determination’ [1914], in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 20, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1964, pp. 393–454.

20. Löwy, op. cit., p. 96.

21. V. I. Lenin, ‘The National Programme of the RSDLP’ [1918], in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 19, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1977, pp. 539–545.

22. The TKP was founded on 10 September 1920 in Baku, Azerbaijan. It was forced into illegality during most of its history and faced a large number of mass detentions.

23. Tunçay Türkiye’de Sol Akımlar I [Leftist Currents in Turkey I], BDS Yayınları, İstanbul, 2000 [second printing], p. 195.

24. Ibid., p. 199.

25. Ibid., p. 199.

26. Doğu Perinçek (ed.), Komintern Belgelerinde Türkiye 3. Kürt Sorunu [Turkey in Comintern Documents III. The Kurdish Question], Kaynak Yayınları, İstanbul, 1994, p. 15.

27. Mete Tunçay, Türkiye’de Sol Akımlar II [Leftists Currents in Turkey II], BDS Yayınları, İstanbul, 1993, p. 33.

28. See Ragıp Zarakolu, ‘Komintern ve Türkiye’ [Comintern and Turkey], Sosyalizm ve Toplumsal Mücadeleler Ansiklopedisi [Encyclopaedia of Socialism and Social Struggles], vol. 6, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul, 1855.

29. Ibid., p. 261.

30. Hikmet Kıvılcımlı, İhtiyat Kuvvet: Milliyet (Şark), Yol: 6. Kitap [The Reserve Force: Nation (The East)] Yol Yayınları, İstanbul, 1979, p. 28.

31. Ibid., pp. 41–55.

32. Dersim isyan mıydı tartışması.

33. Yön (author’s name missing), ‘Doğunun Kalkındırılması’ [The Development of the East], No. 3, 1962. Sami Katırcıoğlu, ‘Unutulan Doğu’ [The Forgotten East], Yön, No. 61, 1963.

34. Sait Kırmızıtoprak, ‘Doğu Meselesinde Yanılsamalar’ [Fallacies in the Eastern Question], Yön, No. 63, 1963.

35. Sait Kırmıztoprak et al., ‘Doğulu Gençler Barış Dünyası’na Cevap Veriyor: Doğu Davamız’ [Youngsters from the East Reply Barış Dünyası: Our Eastern Question], Yön, No. 26, 1962.

36. Doğan Avcıoğlu, ‘Kürt Meselesi’ [The Kurdish Question], Yön, No. 194 , 1966, p. 3.

37. Ibid., p. 3.

38. Ibid., p. 3.

39. Artun Ünsal, Umuttan Yalnızlığa. Türkiye İşçi Partisi (1961–1971) [From Hope to Solitude: Workers Party of Turkey (1961–1971)], Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul, 2002, p. 3.

40. Ferruh Bozbeyli, Parti Programları Birinci Kitap Birinci Cilt [Programmes of Political Parties], Ak Yayınları, İstanbul, 1970, pp. 324–325.

41. Mehmet Ali Aybar, TİP (Türkiye İşçi Partisi) Tarihi 3 [The History of Workers Party of Turkey vol. 3], BDS Yayınları, İstanbul, 1988, p. 64.

42. Ünsal, op. cit., p. 8.

43. Mehmet Ali Aybar, op. cit., p. 284.

44. Sosyalizm ve Toplumsal Mücadeleler Ansiklopedisi, Vol. 7, pp. 2132–2133.

45. In the meantime, leftist Kurds did not remain indifferent to and made their own contribution to this split in the ranks of the Turkish left. Kurdish leftists started to build their own organisations in the late 1960s. The first of this kind was Devrimci Doğu Kültür Ocakları – DDKO (The Revolutionary Eastern Culture Hearths).

46. Mihri Belli, ‘Millet Gerçeği’ [the Truth of Nation], in M. Belli, Yazılar 1965–1970, Sol Yayınları, Ankara, 1970, pp. 302–303.

47. Ibid., p. 306.

48. Ibid., p. 306.

49. Mahir Çayan, Toplu Yazılar [Collected Writings], Özgürlük Yayınları, İstanbul, 1995.

50. This new split is important in the history of the Turkish left for it turned out to become the moment that paved the way for the establishment of the Front Tradition in Turkey. Led by Mahir Çayan, the group split from ASD published the journal Kurtuluş, which happened to be the birthplace for Türkiye Halk Kurtuluş Partisi Cephesi (THKP-C) (Turkish People’s Liberation–Front).

51. Çayan, pp. 206–207.

52. Türkiye İhtilalci İşçi Köylü Partisi, 1. Kongre Belgeleri [First Congress Documents], Aydınlık Yayınları, İstanbul, 1978, p. 89.

53. Türkiye İhtilalci İşçi Köylü Partisi, Belgeler [Documents], Aydınlık Yayınları, İstanbul, 1975, p. 33.

54. Ibid., pp. 91–92.

55. Ibid., pp. 91–92.

56. Sosyalizm ve Toplumsal Mücadeleler Ansiklopedisi, vol. 7, p. 529.

57. Ibid., p. 529.

58. TKP Konferansı (Belgeler), p. 134.

59. TKP Konferansı (Belgeler) [TKP Conference. (Documents)], Temel Yayınlar, Ankara, 1978, p. 134.

60. Sosyalizm ve Toplumsal Mücadeleler Ansiklopedisi, vol. 7, p. 529.

61. Ibid., p. 45.

62. H. Erdal, ‘Ulusal Sorun Üzerine Bir Söyleşi’ [An Interview on National Question], Ürün, No. 52, 1978.

63. Kurtuluş opened a larger space for the industrial proletariat in its ranks than Devrimci Yol, which, arguably the most populist of organizations of the Turkish left, was mostly popular among the gecekondu (shanty-towns) dwellers, i.e. the poor of the cities.

64. Kurtuluş (author’s name missing), ‘Ulusal Sorun Üzerine Eleştiriler’ [Critiques on National Question], Kurtuluş, No. 3, 1976, p. 24.

65. Kurtuluş, ‘Türkiye’de Ulusal Sorun Üzerine’ [On the National Question in Turkey], Kurtuluş, No. 56 (date of publication missing)

66. Ibid.

67. Devrimci Yol (author’s name missing), ‘Türkiye’de Kürt Meselesi ve Devrimci Hareketin Görevleri II [The Kurdish Question in Turkey and the Tasks of Revolutinary Movement II]’, Devrimci Yol, No. 10, 1977, p. 13.

68. Devrimci Yol (author’s name missing), ‘Sömürgecilik Tartışmaları Üzerine II’ [On Discussions on Colonialism II], Devrimci Yol, No. 17, 1978, p. 14.

69. For a history of TKP-ML see <http://www.partizan.org/finalframeset.htm> (accessed 29 June 2012).

70. See <http://www.partizan.org/finalframeset.htm> (accessed 29 June 2012).

71. Türkiye İşçi Köylü Partisi Tüzük, Program, Toprak Devrim Programı [Workers and Peasants Party of Turkey, Regulations, Program, Land Revolution Programme], TİKP Yayınları, Ankara, 1980, p. 27.

72. Türkiye İşçi Köylü Partisi’nin Siyasi Çizgisi. Merkez Komitesi Raporu [The Political Line of Workers and Peasants Party of Turkey. Central Committee Report], TİKP Yayınları, Ankara, 1980, p. 55.

73. Parti Bayrağı (author’s name missing), ‘Geçmişten Günümüze Kürt Milli Meselesi Karşısında Takınılan Tavır’ [The Attitudes Concerning Kurdish National Question from Past to Present], Parti Bayrağı, No. 5, 1978, pp. 4–5.

74. Ibid., p. 4.

75. Parti Bayrağı (author’s name missing), ‘Milli Mesele Üzerine’ [on the National Question], Parti Bayrağı, No. 5, 1978, p. 52.

76. Ibid., pp. 52, 73.

77. Ibid., p. 52.

78. See <http://www.tkp.org.tr/nedentkp> (accessed 25 June 2012).

79. See <http://www.tkp.org.tr/konferans2004> (accessed 25 June 2012).

80. İşçi Partisi has recently changed its name to Vatan Partisi.

81. Doğu Perinçek, ‘Türk Ordusuna Değil, Mayın Döşeyene Yetki’, Aydınlık, No. 943, 2005.

82. Aydınlık, ‘İşçi Partisi Merkez Komitesi Kararı’ [The Decision of the Central Committee of Workers’ Party], Aydınlık, No. 946, 2005.

83. Ibid.

84. This new strategic goal of the Kurdish movement was actually developed by Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, since he was imprisoned in 1999. Öcalan compiled all this news of him in the defences he submitted to the European Courts of Human Rights. See Abdullah Öcalan, Kürdistan Devrim Manifestosu [The Kurdistan Revolution Manifest], Ararat Yayınları, İstanbul, 2012. For a through examination of Öcalan’s new route in English see the following: Ahmet Hamdi Akkaya and Joost Jongerden, ‘Reassembling the political: the PKK and the project of radical democracy’, European Journal of Turkish Studies, No. 14, 2012, Ahmet Hamdi Akkaya and Joost Jongerden, ‘The PKK in the 2000s: continuity through breaks?’, in Marlies Casier and Joost Jongerden (eds), Nationalisms and Politics in Turkey, Routledge, Abingdon, 2011, pp. 143–162.

85. However, the recent negotiations between the Turkish state and the PKK collapsed in the summer of 2015 and the PKK returned back to the armed struggle again.