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Abstract
This study looks at the prioritisation of development projects and the consequential devaluation of cultural heritage in the case of the Kawo Amado Kella defensive wall in Wolaita, southern Ethiopia. The study region has several cultural, natural and combined world heritage sites, although the location is practically unknown on a regional and national level. The area is one of Ethiopia’s most culturally rich regions, and the wall was discovered at an ancient location near the Omo River. The Wolaita people live in the Omo River basin and have a rich cultural heritage and over time the defensive wall has suffered from various man-made and natural forces. This study focussed on the maintenance and conservation challenges of the Kawo Amado Kella defensive wall and used a qualitative ethnographic research approach with purposive sampling to understand the significance of the wall on a regional and national level as well as internationally. The results of the research are presented in this article.
Resumen
“El orden de prioridades de programas de desarrollo y la devaluación del patrimonio cultural: el caso de la cultura material en Wolaita, al sur de Etiopía”
En este estudio se examina el orden de prioridades de programas de desarrollo y la resultante devaluación del patrimonio cultural en el caso de la muralla defensiva de Kawo Amado Kella, en Wolaita, al sur de Etiopía. La región estudiada cuenta con varios sitios de patrimonio cultural, natural y combinado, aunque su ubicación es prácticamente desconocida a escala regional y nacional. La zona es una de las de mayor riqueza cultural de Etiopía, y la muralla se descubrió en un antiguo emplazamiento cerca del río Omo. El pueblo wolaita vive en la cuenca del río Omo y posee un rico patrimonio cultural. Con el tiempo, la muralla defensiva ha estado sometida a daños causados por diversas fuerzas naturales y actividad humana. Este estudio se centró en los problemas de mantenimiento y conservación de la muralla defensiva de Kawo Amado Kella. Se utilizó un enfoque de investigación etnográfica cualitativa con muestreo intencional para comprender la importancia de la muralla a nivel regional y nacional, así como internacional. En este artículo se presentan los resultados de la investigación.
الملخص
“عطاء الأولوية للمشاريع التنموية و التقليل من قيمة التراث الثقافي : دراسة حالة الثقافة المادية في ولايتا، جنوب إثيوبي ”
تبحث هذه الدراسة في تحديد أولويات مشاريع التنمية وما يترتب على ذلك من انخفاض قيمة التراث الثقافي في حالة جدار كاو أمادو الدفاعي في ولايتا، جنوب إثيوبيا . المنطقة الدراسية تضم العديد من المواقع التراثية الثقافية والطبيعية المجتمعة، على الرغم من أن موقعها غير معروف تقريبًا على المستوى الإقليمي والوطني . وتعد المنطقة واحدة من أكثر المناطق الغنية ثقافيا في إثيوبيا، وتم اكتشاف الجدار في موقع قديم بالقرب من نهر أومو . يعيش شعب ولايتا في حوض نهر أومو ويمتلكون تراثًا ثقافيًا غنيًا ومع مرور الوقت عانى الجدار الدفاعي من مختلف القوى الطبيعية و من صنع الإنسان . تركزت هذه الدراسة على تحديات الصيانة والحفظ التي واجهها جدار الدفاع كاوو أمادو كيلا، واستخدمت منهج البحث الإثنوغرافي النوعي مع استخدام عينة مستمدة لفهم أهمية الجدار على المستوى الإقليمي الوطني، وكذلك على المستوى الدولي . يتم تقديم نتائج البحث في هذا المقال .
Resumo
“A priorização de projetos de desenvolvimento e a desvalorização do patrimônio cultural: o caso da cultura material em Wolaita, sudeste da Etiópia”
Este estudo examina a priorização de projetos de desenvolvimento e a consequente desvalorização do patrimônio cultural no caso da muralha defensiva Kawo Amado Kella em Wolaita, no sudeste da Etiópia. A região do estudo possui várias áreas de patrimônio cultural, natural e um misto de patrimônios, embora o local seja praticamente desconhecido a nível regional e nacional. A área é uma das regiões culturalmente mais ricas da Etiópia e o muro foi descoberto em uma localização secular próxima ao Rio Omo. O povo Wolaita vive na bacia do Rio Omo e tem um patrimônio cultural rico e, ao longo do tempo, a muralha defensiva tem sofrido impacto de diversos fatores naturais e os causados pelo homem. Este estudo foca nos desafios de manutenção e de conservação da muralha defensiva Kawo Amado Kella e utilizou uma abordagem de pesquisa etnográfica qualitativa com amostragem orientada para entender o significado da muralha em escala regional e nacional, assim como internacionalmente. Os resultados da pesquisa são apresentados neste artigo.
摘要
“发展项目的优先级和文化遗产贬值：以埃塞俄比亚南部沃莱塔的物质文化为例”
本研究以埃塞俄比亚南部沃莱塔地区卡沃阿马多凯拉防御墙为例，探讨了发展项目的优先顺序和随之而来的文化遗产贬值问题。该研究区域拥有多个文化、自然和综合遗址，但在地区和国家层面上，其位置却鲜为人知。该地区是埃塞俄比亚文化最丰富的地区之一，而防御墙是在奥莫河附近的一个古老地点发现的。沃莱塔人居住在奥莫河流域，这里拥有丰富的文化遗产，但随着时间推移，防御墙遭受了各种人为和自然的破坏。本研究侧重于卡沃阿马多凯拉防御墙的维护和保护挑战，并采用了定性的民族志研究方法，通过有目的的抽样来了解该墙在区域、国家甚至国际上的重要性。本文展示了该研究的结果。
Acknowledgements
Individuals and governmental agencies have contributed significantly to ensuring that this text fulfils its goals. This work was supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 778196, which I would like to thank first and foremost. I also want to express my gratitude to everyone who assisted, such as Professor Pat Gibbons, the project leader of the Building Resilience Through Education (BRTE) programme at University College Dublin (UCD), Dr Berhanu Kuma of Wolaita Sodo University in Ethiopia, and Dr Dejene Kuma, UCD (BRTE coordinators).
Notes
1 Krushil Watene and Mandy Yap, ‘Culture and Sustainable Development: Indigenous Contributions’, Journal of Global Ethics 11, no. 1 (2015): 51–5.
2 UNESCO, UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (Paris: UNESCO, 2001), https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/universal-declaration-cultural-diversity (accessed 3 April 2024).
3 UNESCO, The 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics (FCS) (Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2009).
4 Jukka Jokilehto, ‘Definition of Cultural Heritage: References to Documents in History’, ICCROM Working Group ‘Heritage and Society’ 4, no. 8 (2005), http://www.ycarhe.eu/uploads/media/rural-heritage/Cultural-Heritage-definitions_ICOMOS2005.pdf (accessed 3 April 2024).
5 Erik Ringmar, ‘The Great Wall of China does not Exist’, in Walling, Boundaries and Liminality: A Political Anthropology of Transformations, ed. Agnes Horvath, Marius Ion Benţa, and Joan Davison (Oxford: Routledge, 2018), 122–35.
6 Filiberto Chiabrando et al., ‘A European Interoperable Database (EID) to Increase the Resilience of Cultural Heritage’, The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-3/W4 (2018): 18–21.
7 Niall Finneran, ‘Lucy to Lalibela: Heritage and Identity in Ethiopia in the Twenty-First Century’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 19, no. 1 (2013): 41–61.
8 UNESCO World Heritage Convention 2008: Lower Valley of the Omo, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ (accessed 3 April 2024).
9 Carlo Cavanna, ed., Wolaita Region Ethiopia, Studi e Ricerche (1995–2004) (Wolaita: An Ethiopia Region Studies and Research (1995–2004)), Societa’ Naturalistica Speleological Maremmana, Grosseto (2005).
10 See, for example, Steven A. Brandt et al., ‘Early MIS 3 Occupation of Mochena Borago Rockshelter, Southwest Ethiopian Highlands: Implications for Late Pleistocene Archaeology, Paleoenvironments and Modern Human Dispersals’, Quaternary International 274 (2012): 38–54; Steven A. Brandt et al.,‘A New MIS 3 Radiocarbon Chronology for Mochena Borago Rockshelter, SW Ethiopia: Implications for the Interpretation of Late Pleistocene Chronostratigraphy and Human Behavior’, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 11 (2017): 352–69.
11 FNG (Federal Negarit-Gazetta) (2000) Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia No. 39, Addis Ababa, 27 June Proclamation No. 209/2000 ADDIS ABABA, 27 June 2000.
12 See, for example, Yezihalem Sisay Takele, ‘Cultural Heritage Management Practices—in the Medieval Rock-Hewn Churches of Lalibela, Ethiopia—Survival of the Heritages and the Legacies it Contains’, Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Science 4, no. 1 (2020): 8–20, https://wap.hillpublisher.com/ArticleDetails.aspx?cid = 290 (accessed 4 April 2024).
13 Cf. for example, Shadreck Chirikure et al., ‘Unfulfilled Promises? Heritage Management and Community Participation at some of Africa’s Cultural Heritage Sites’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 16 (2010): 1–2, 30–44, https://doi.org/10.1080/13527250903441739 (accessed 3 April 2024).
14 Tekle Hagos, ‘Current Cultural Heritage Management System at the World Heritage Site of Aksum, Ethiopia’, in Annales d’Éthiopie Revue internationale sur la Corne de l’Afriquec No 32c Années 2018–2019 (Paris: Centre français des études éthiopiennes/Éditions de Boccard, 2019), 293–317.
15 Hagos, ‘Current Cultural Heritage Management System at the World Heritage Site of Aksum, Ethiopia’.
16 Monther M. Jamhawi and Zain A. Hajahjah, ‘A Bottom-Up Approach for Cultural Tourism Management in the Old City of As-Salt, Jordan’, Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development 7, no. 1 (2017): 91–106, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JCHMSD-07-2015-0027 (accessed 3 April 2024).
17 Stephen G. Agong’, ‘Cultural Planning of Dunga, Abindu and Kit-Mikayi Cultural Heritage Sites, Kisumu City, Kenya’, blog post August 2020, https://www.mistraurbanfutures.org/en/blog/cultural-heritage-and-sustainable-development-kisumu (accessed 4 April 2024).
18 Cf. Sisay Takele, ‘Cultural Heritage Management Practices’.
19 Alexandra S. Antohin, ‘Preserving the Intangible: Orthodox Christian Approaches to Spiritual Heritage’, Religions 10 (2019): 336, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/5/336 (accessed 5 April 2024).
20 See, for example, Vijayakumar Somasekharan Nair, ‘Perceptions, Legislation, and Management of Cultural Heritage in Ethiopia’, International Journal of Cultural Property 23, no. 1 (2016): 99–114, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-cultural-property/article/abs/perceptions-legislation-and-management-of-cultural-heritage-in-ethiopia/74E793F77BF38BEEE17B4BA5AC67F4B4 (accessed 5 April 2024).
21 Atsbha Gebreegziabher, Getaneh Setegn, and Aregu Yiheyis, ‘Sustaining Ethiopian Heritage Sites: The Case of Gemate Burial Site in Dejen Sport’, Cogent Social Sciences 5, no. 1 (2019): 1603001, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1603001 (accessed 5 April 2024).
22 See, for example, W. Nzeda Tagowa, ‘Rural Tourism as a Factor of Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Sukur World Heritage Site in Adamawa State, Northeastern Nigeria’, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment 142 (2010): 675–88; Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia: 1270–1527 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 53.
23 Naif Adel Haddad, Leen A. Fakhoury, and Yasir M. Sakr, ‘A Critical Anthology of International Charters, Conventions & Principles on Documentation of Cultural Heritage for Conservation, Monitoring & Management’, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 21, no. 1 (2021): 291–310, 306, https://zenodo.org/records/4575718 (accessed 5 April 2024).
24 Webber Ndoro, Shadreck Chirikure, and Janette Deacon, eds, Managing Heritage in Africa: Who Cares? (Oxford: Routledge, 2018), 257.
25 Shadreck Chirikure, Mukwende Tawanda, and Taruvinga Pascall, ‘Postcolonial Heritage Conservation in Africa: Perspectives from Drystone Wall Restorations at Khami World Heritage Site, Zimbabwe’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 22, no. 2 (2016): 165–78, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13527258.2015.1103300 (accessed 5 April 2024).
26 Anneli Ekblom et al., ‘Conservation through Biocultural Heritage Examples from Sub-Saharan Africa’, Land 8, no. 1 (2019): 5, https://doi.org/10.3390/land8010005 (accessed 5 April 2024).
27 Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage: A Review of Development Assistance and its Potential to Promote Sustainability (Washington, DC: World Bank Group, 1999), http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/551751468176048723/Sustainable-tourism-and-cultural-heritage-a-review-of-development-assistance-and-its-potential-to-promote-sustainability (accessed 5 April 2024).
28 Ana Pereira Roders and Ron van Oers, ‘World Heritage Cities Management’, Facilities 29, no. 7/8 (2011): 276–85, https://doi.org/10.1108/02632771111130898 (accessed 5 April 2024).
29 Cf., for example, Jonathan Prangnell, Anne Ross, and Brian Coghill, ‘Power Relations and Community Involvement in Landscape-Based Cultural Heritage Management Practice: An Australian Case Study’, International Journal of Heritage Studies 16, no. 1–2 (2010): 140–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/13527250903441838 (accessed 5 April 2024).
30 UNESCO, UNESCO’s Work on Culture and Sustainable Development: Evaluation of a Policy Theme, report (2015), https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000234443 (accessed 5 April 2024).
31 Cf., for example, Christina Aas, Adele Ladkin, and John Fletcher, ‘Stakeholder Collaboration and Heritage Management’, Annals of Tourism Research 32, no. 1 (2005): 28–48, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160738304001021 (accessed 5 April 2024).
32 See, for example, Wiendu Nuryanti, ‘Heritage and Postmodern Tourism’, Annals of Tourism Research 23, no. 2 (1996): 249–60, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0160738395000623 (accessed 5 April 2024); Aas, Ladkin, and Fletcher, ‘Stakeholder Collaboration and Heritage Management’.
33 Håkan Karlsson and Anders Gustafsson, ‘Staging Antiquity: A Comparison of Five Greek Cultural Heritage Sites and the Construction of their Authenticity', Journal of Heritage Management 5, no. 1 (2020): 7–23.
34 Cf. Somasekharan Nair, ‘Perceptions, Legislation, and Management of Cultural Heritage in Ethiopia'.
35 See Marcello Lambertiand Roberto Sottile, The Wolaita Language (Cologne: Rudiger Koppe Verlag, 1997).
36 See, for example, George Peter Murdock, Africa: Its People and Their Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953); Afework Hailegiorgis Abebe, Changes and Continuity of Indigenous Kingship Institutions of the Wolaita: An Ethnohistorical Study (London: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2016); Bruce Adams, ‘Tagmemic Analysis of the Wolaitta Language’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1983).
37 Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of Southwest Ethiopia and its Borderland: Part III: Northeastern Africa (London: International African Institute, 1956).
38 The three Wolaita Kawos (Kings) of this period were Kawo Ogato (1759–1799), Kawo Amado (1782–1819) and Kawo Damote (1819–1845). After the last king Kawo Gobe (1845–1890), the region was annexed by Ethiopia from 1894.
39 Cf. Juliet Goldbart and David Hustler, ‘Ethnography’, in Research Methods in Social Sciences, ed. Bridget Somekh and Cathy Lewin (London: Sage, 2005), 16–23; Carole McGranahan, ‘What Is Ethnography? Teaching Ethnographic Sensibilities without Fieldwork’, Teaching Anthropology 4 (2014): 23–36, https://www.teachinganthropology.org/ojs/index.php/teach_anth/article/view/421/pdf_16 (accessed 5 April 2024).
40 Cf. Marvin Harris and Orna Johnson, Cultural Anthropology, 5th edn (Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2000); Carole McGranahan, ‘Ethnography Beyond Method: The Importance of an Ethnographic Sensibility’, Sites 15, no. 1 (2018), https://sites.otago.ac.nz/Sites/article/view/373/425 (accessed 5 April 2024).
41 See, for example, Michael Angrosino, Doing Ethnographic and Observational Research (London: Sage 2007); Betül Tülek and Meryem Atik,‘Alanya—a Walled Town in Turkey’, WIT Transactions on the Built Environment 143 (2007): 231–42; David L. Altheide, ‘Reflections: Ethnographic Content Analysis’, Qualitative Sociology 10 (1987): 65–77; Howard Schwartz and Jerry Jacobs, Qualitative Sociology: A Method to the Madness (New York: The Free Press, 1979).
42 Cf. McGranahan, ‘Ethnography Beyond Method’.
43 Cf. for example, Alison Heritage and Golfomitsou Stavroula, ‘Conservation Science: Reflections and Future Perspectives’, Studies in Conservation 60, Suppl. No. 2 (2015): ICCROM Forum on Conservation Science, 2–6, https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2015.1117858 (accessed 5 April 2024).
44 Shadreck Chirikure, ‘Heritage Conservation in Africa: The Good, the Bad, and the Challenges’, South African Journal of Science 109, no. 1&2 (2013): 1–3.
45 Heritage and Stavroula, ‘Conservation Science’.
46 Chirikure, ‘Heritage Conservation in Africa’.
47 See, for example, Tutur Lussetyowati, ‘Preservation and Conservation through Cultural Heritage Tourism. Case Study: Musi Riverside Palembang’, Social and Behavioural Sciences 184 (2015): 401–6.
48 Cf. Chirikure, ‘Heritage Conservation in Africa’.
49 The Burra Charter, The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance, 2013, https://australia.icomos.org/publications/burra-charter-practice-notes/ (accessed 5 April 2024).
50 For similar examples in Tanzania, see Elgidius B. Ichumbaki and Mjema Elinaza, ‘The Impact of Small-Scale Development Projects on Archaeological Heritage in Africa: The Tanzanian Experience’, Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 20, no. 1 (2018): 18–34, https://doi.org/10.1080/13505033.2018.1433914 (accessed 5 April 2024).
51 UNESCO, UNESCO’s Work on Culture and Sustainable Development, 50–75.
52 UNESCO, UNESCO’s Work on Culture and Sustainable Development, 61–66.
53 ICCROM, People-Centred Approaches to the Conservation of Cultural Heritage: Living Heritage (Rome: ICCROM, 2015), 13, https://www.iccrom.org/sites/default/files/PCA_Annexe-2.pdf (accessed 20 April 2024).
54 Cf. Julie Abara Chinwe, ‘The Challenges of Safeguarding and Securing Cultural Heritage Materials During Violent Conflict in Nigeria’, Proceedings of the II Internacional Conference on Best Practices in World Heritage: People and Communities (Madrid: Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 2015), https://docta.ucm.es/entities/publication/733183bf-539a-4804-85ba-09cedfc5308b (accessed 5 April 2024).
55 African Development Bank Group, Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Executive Summary. Project Name: Gibe III Hydroelectric Power Project, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Gibe%20III_EIA_%20Executive%20Summary%20EBJK%2006-08-08.pdf (accessed 5 April 2024).
56 The Burra Charter, The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance, 2013.
57 Chirikure, ‘Heritage Conservation in Africa’.
58 Aas, Ladkin, and Fletcher, ‘Stakeholder Collaboration and Heritage Management’.
59 Cf. Chirikure et al., ‘Unfulfilled Promises?’.
60 Cf. for example, Walter Jamieson, ‘The Challenges of Sustainable Community Cultural Heritage Tourism Asian Institute of Technology’ (keynote speech at the UNESCO Workshop on Culture, Heritage Management and Tourism in Bhaktapur, Nepal on 9 April 2000), https://www.ucalgary.ca/ev/designresearch/projects/2000/cuc/tp/outreach/Walter%20Nepal.pdf (accessed 6 April 2024); Chirikure et al., ‘Unfulfilled Promises?’.
61 Lussetyowati, ‘Preservation and Conservation through Cultural Heritage Tourism’.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Afework Hailegiorgis Abebe
Afework Hailegiorgis Abebe recently graduated with a doctorate in World Heritage from the School of Archaeology at University College Dublin, Ireland. He has been a researcher and lecturer at the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Management in the College of Social Sciences and Humanities at Wolaita Sodo University (WSU) for the last 11 years.