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Abstract
This essay examines the ongoing politics of identity-construction in relation to the Nagas. It emphasizes the need to acknowledge the presence of multiple, contingent, continuously constructed identities in any conceptualization of the process of identity-formation. This is particularly glaring as we historicise the forging of Naga nationality. The essay argues that the Naga nation is not ‘given’ in nature; instead it is continually being constructed. However, unlike the neatness of many such constructed formations, the Naga ‘nationality’ has been decidedly unstable, reflecting political processes covering more than half a century, during which time it has significantly mutated in response to objective historical conditions.
Notes
1. Renan, Qu'est-ce qu'une nation, 48–60.
2. Ibid.
3. See Smith, Ethnic Origins of Nations.
4. For example Gellner, Nations and Nationalism; Anderson, Imagined Communities; and Breuilly, Nationalism and State.
5. Renan, op. cit.
6. Anderson, op. cit., 6.
7. Ibid., 5–7. Emphasis mine.
8. Competitive past refers to a situation when each of cultural groups trying to demonstrate that their history is richer and older than the others on the one hand and India on the other. It is continuous appropriation and construction of history to endow oneself with nationhood. It is a common endeavour among the tribes and communities in north east India.
9. Renan, op. cit.
10. Kearney, Post-Nationalist Ireland.
11. Hobsbawm and Ranger, Invention of Tradition.
12. Maxwell, India, Nagas and the North East and Smith, ‘Formation of Nationalist Movement’, 1–30.
13. Nathan, ‘Varieties of National Oppression’, 1356–7.
14. Mishra, ‘Naga National Question’, 61–2.
15. Horam, Thirty Years of Naga Insurgency, 4–10; Aosenba, Naga Resistance Movement; Nuh, Struggle for Identity in north east India; and Ao, Naga National Question.
16. Vanaik, Painful Transition, 113–18.
17. Originally a European term, it is often used by historians of north east India to describe the isolation of either the tribes or the small states or of the region.
18. Hutton, Angami Nagas.
19. For the Angami prophecy Hutton, Angami Nagas, 252: For the Dimasas see Mackenzie, North East Frontier of India, for the Kacha Naga tribes, Yonou, Struggle of the Nagas under Jadonang and Gaindinliu.
20. For details see Nag, Waiting for the Prophet.
21. Downs, ‘Identity’, 222–36. The discussion below is based on his research.
22. See for details, Devi, Ahom Tribal Relations.
23. Dubey, ‘Inter-Ethnic Alliance’, 4.
24. Hodson, Naga Tribe of Manipur, 8.
25. Ibid.
26. Mills, Lotha Nagas, 96–7.
27. Smith, Ao Nagas of Assam, 52.
28. Ibid.
29. Op. cit., 81.
30. Op. cit., 332.
31. Robb, ‘Colonial State and Construction of Indian Identity’, 1–39.
32. Ibid.
33. Lyall, Introduction to P.R.T. Gurdon, xv.
34. The Census enumerators and the British ethnographers were mutually dependent on each other for listing of the tribes. The first Census was taken in Assam in 1872. But most of the tribes were yet outside the ambit of the empire. So large parts of the region remained outside the purview of the Census. It was only during the Census of 1901 that most of the tribes were actually recorded by the enumerators. In this enumeration they depended as much on local informants as on earlier ethnographic studies. But on the basis of the information of the local informants the Census enumerators often were able to provide a corrective. For example the ethnographers or earlier Census enumerators clubbed together many small tribes under one tribal name due to wrong information provided or similarity of the tribes. But later enumerators after close examination were able to correct the information in the subsequent Census. This is why the Census Report of 1921 and 1931 were more authentic and informative than the earlier ones for the ethnographic diversity of north eastern region.
35. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India.
36. Downs, ‘Study of Christianity in North East India’, 203–14.
37. Majumdar, ‘Garo National Council’.
38. Downs, op. cit.
39. Smith, W.C., op. cit.
40. Ibid.
41. Chaube, Hill Politics in North East India, 140.
42. Sarkar, Modern India, 418.
43. The Mizo hills witness a periodic reproductive blossoming of bamboo plants which result massive increase in rat population who devour all the harvested food grains of the neighbouring Mizo tribes causing huge food shortage, famine conditions, starvation and deaths. This was a recurring curse for the Mizo people. But after the colonial take-over the administration took measure in mitigating this calamity to the relief of the tribe.
44. This process has been described in detail in Nag, Contesting Marginality.
45. Memorandum on Naga hills.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. The exact date of formation of this early body is not known.
49. Imti, Speech in Kohima.
50. Ibid.
51. Memorandum to His Majesty's government.
52. Naga National Council Resolution.
53. Ibid.
54. Naga National Council Memorandum.
55. See for details of this construction, Nag, op. cit., 141–3.
56. List of Members of the Naga National Council furnished in January and February, 1948 with Sub Councils.
57. Letter of Aliba Imti in W C Archer Papers.
58. Gangumei Kabui, Genesis of Ethnoses of Nagas and Kuki Chin Group, 1.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid.
61. Singh, ‘Ethnic Movements of Small Tribes of Manipur’, 1–18.
62. Kabui, op. cit., 10–11.
63. Singh, op. cit.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Das, Study of Maring Societies of Manipur, 205.
70. Ibid.
71. Shakespeare, Lushai Kuki Clans.
72. Haokip, ‘Ethnic Conflicts and Internal Displacement in Manipur’, 221–40.
73. The National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) was formed on January 31, 1980 by Isak Chisi Swu, Thuingaleng Muivah and S.S. Khaplang opposing the ‘Shillong Accord’ signed by the then NNC (Naga National Council) with the Indian government. Later, differences surfaced within the outfit over the issue of commencing a dialogue process with the Indian Government and on April 30, 1988, the NSCN split into two factions, namely the NSCN-K led by S.S. Khaplang, and the NSCN-IM, led by Isak Chisi Swu and Thuingaleng Muivah.
74. Ranajit and Bhagabati, ‘Monsang of Manipur’, 67–85:
75. Singh, Monsang Tribe of Manipur, 328–9.
76. Das, Manipur Tribal Scene, 18; See also his Study of Maring Societies of Manipur.
77. Haokip, op. cit.
78. Saikia, ‘Prolegomena’, xxi.
79. Bagehot, Physics and Politics, 20–1 cited in Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 1.
80. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, 50–1.
81. Das, R.K., op. cit., 205.