Isolation, communication and propaganda in the occupied territories of France, 1914–1918

Abstract

This article explores the isolation of the occupied territories of France during the First World War. Until now, the historiography has used the restrictions of freedom imposed by the Germans, the lack of correspondence with France, and the absence of information about the situation on the frontline, to argue that the populations living in the invaded regions were totally secluded. This study, based on a vast collection of primary and secondary sources, challenges the concept of ‘total isolation’ and argues that French civilians living in the occupied territories were exposed to multiple sources of information and communication. However, the lack of a coherent narrative made French civilians living in the occupied territories sceptical and triggered a feeling of abandonment.

Keywords:

• Propaganda
• France
• occupation
• newspaper
• resistance

Notes

1. Becker, Les cicatrices rouges; McPhail, The long silence and Nivet, La France occupée.

2. See for example the reviews of Becker’s and Nivet’s books by Philippe Salson on the website of the Collectif de Recherche International et de Débat sur la Grande Guerre de 1914–1918 (CRID) available online at: http://www.crid1418.org/bibli/?p=95 and at: http://www.crid1418.org/bibli/?p=147 [Both consulted on 10 March 2016].

3. McPhail, The long silence, 126.

4. Becker, Les oubliés, 35.

5. Becker, “Life in an occupied Zone,” 630.

6. In French: ‘L’isolation du territoire occupé’ and ‘Un territoire coupé de la France libre’. See: Nivet, La France occupée, 16.

7. Ibid., p. 24.

8. ADHS: 4M513–519. Summaries and transcripts of interviews of repatriated civilians from the occupied territories of France, 1914–1918; ADN: 9R. Files from the occupation, 1914–1918; AN: F41/479. Archives from the Commissariat Général à l’Information and SHD AT: 16N1569–1571. Archives of the Service de la Propagande Aérienne, 1914–1918.

9. There is a forthcoming doctoral thesis on the occupation from the German point of view by Larissa Wegner.

10. Salson, L’aisne occupée, 61–8.

11. Ibid.

12. Nivet, La France occupée, 121–32 and Salson, L’Aisne occupée, 61–8.

13. Gibson, Behind the front, 158.

14. Cochet and Porte, Dictionnaire de la Grande Guerre, 1089.

15. Salson, L’Aisne occupée, 188.

16. Ibid., 216.

17. Le Bulletin de Lille, 22 November 1914.

18. Le Bulletin de Lille, 3 January 1915.

19. See Le Bulletin de Lille, 1914 and 1915 for various sentences pronounced against French civilians.

20. Nivet, La France occupée, 18.

21. Connolly, “Encountering Germans,” 237–8 and Salome, “Valenciennes sous l’occupation allemande,” 73.

22. Fleury, Sous la botte, 225.

23. Connolly, “Encountering Germans,” 239 and Nivet, La France occupée, 18. The question of whether French civilians living in the occupied territories were able to communicate directly with French soldiers on the frontline is harder to determine. We have not been able to find something similar to the Belgian Mot du Soldat but families might have given news indirectly.

24. Nivet, La France occupée, 20.

25. Mauclère, Orage sur la ville, 21.

26. Lapierre Les allemands à Sedan, 135.

27. Fleury, Sous la botte, 225.

28. The Journal de Guerre was published between 28 October and 23 December 1914. The Gazette de Lorraine was a pre-war newspaper, interrupted in 1908, controlled by a citizen of Luxemburg and pro-German. The Bulletin de Lille, published between November 1914 and October 1918, contained only news related to the city. The Bulletin de Roubaix was published between December 1916 and October 1918. L’Echo de Maubeuge was published from November 1914 until an unknown date. Laska, Presse et propagande allemande, 119–31.

29. La Gazette des Ardennes, 1 November 1914.

30. Laska, Presse et propagande allemande, 151.

31. A comparison between the narrative of the Gazette des Ardennes and Allied newspapers for the battle of Verdun can be found in Wilkin, Aerial propaganda, 42–47.

32. Ellul, Propaganda, 52–8.

33. It should be noted that the Germans introduced lists of POW in the Gazette des Ardennes. This also proved popular. See: Wilkin, “Allied propaganda,” 37.

34. Stéphani, Sedan, 26–7.

35. Basly, Le martyre de Lens, 208–9.

36. Giguet, Les carnets d’Eugénie Deruelle.

37. Pliant, Le journal, arme de guerre, 16–7.

38. Buthine, Entre l’enclume et le marteau, 298.

39. It should be noted that Blancpain’s work was both a memoir and a history of the occupation. Blancpain, Quand Guillaume II gouvernait, 217; Buthine, Entre l’enclume, 91; Bosc, Les Allemands à Lille, 35.

40. Blancpain, Quand Guillaume II gouvernait, 213.

41. See for example the catholic newspaper La Croix, 16 December 1915.

42. SHD Armée Aérienne (AA): 1A176. Colonel Valentin quoting General Joffre and his report to the War Minister, 29 October 1915.

43. Cochet and Porte, Dictionnaire de la Grande Guerre, 404–5 and 492.

44. Antier, “Espionnage et espionnes,” 42–51.

45. Such as Jules Cambon, the abbot Wetterlé or Lieutenant-Colonel Dupuis. SHD AA: 1A176. Report by Colonel Valantin, Op. cit.

46. Guinard, Devos, and Nicot, Inventaire sommaire, 70 and Ladoux, Les chasseurs d'espions, 197.

47. Imperial War Museum (IWM): Collection of documents kept by Lieutenant-Colonel A. Lee of the Sherwood Foresters. Reports about propaganda distribution, August 1916–August 1917 and SHD AT: 16N1570. Report from MI7(b) to the Deuxième Bureau, October 1918.

48. Wilkin, Aerial propaganda, 123–5.

49. Nicolai, The German secret service, 160.

50. Nivet, La France occupée, 244–7.

51. Nivet, La France occupée, 50.

52. It was renamed many times to confuse the Germans.

53. McPhail, The long silence, 134. It should be acknowledged that resistance is a problematic word. James Connolly has explored this term in the context of the occupation of France during the First World War. See: Connolly, “Encountering Germans,” 156–264.

54. Debruyne and De Schaepdrijver, “Sursum Corda,” 23–5.

55. Debruyne, “Patriotes désintéressés,” 25–45 and Ramirez, “Les villes et les campagnes,” 41.

56. Precise numbers are hard to provide. The archives show that more than 1,500,000 newspapers were distributed by the French and the British in 1918 only. See: Wilkin, Aerial propaganda, 72–82.

57. ADHS: 4M 513. Report 554 about repatriated civilians. 19 January 1917.

58. Delahaye, Les cahiers noirs, 162.

59. ‘Nous ne savions rien du tout de précis, nous vivons absolument comme des exilés et ne sommes-nous pas ainsi et même pis’. Martin-Froment, L’écrivain de Lubine, 98.

60. Fleury, Sous la botte, 231.

61. See Beurier’s article on http://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/pressjournalism_france (consulted 30 June 2016).

62. SHD AA: 1A176. Colonel Valentin to the War Minister, 29 October 1915.

63. At least eight different issues were produced in 1916 and 1917. See SHD AT: 16N1570. Collection of pamphlets and newspapers produced by the Service de la Propagande Aérienne, 1914–1918.

64. For a list, see Wilkin, “Aerial propaganda,” 179–81.

65. Becker, Les oubliés de la Grande Guerre, 14–5.

66. ‘Les Boches du Nord’. See: Nivet, Les réfugiés.

67. Connolly, “Mauvaise conduite,” 7–22.