Newly qualified secondary school teachers’ perspectives on workplace learning

ABSTRACT

There is a gap between knowledge needed at work and knowledge and skills developed through formal education. Certain aspects can only be learned within the actual workplace. This article focuses on workplace learning for newly qualified teachers’ (NQTs), a learning that is integrated in the processes and experiences gained through work. Through emails and interviews the study follows 15 NQTs during their first year of teaching in Norwegian secondary schools and explores what and how they learn, seen from their own perspectives. Through an abductive analysis of the data the study aims to develop insights that can help improve teacher education as well as the induction phase for NQTs. The teachers in the study experienced steep learning curves and lack of formal mentoring. The first year of teaching was characterised by several features that impeded the professional growth. The majority of reported learning experiences were self-initiated, rendering the acquired knowledge somewhat incidental. The NQTs could have been better prepared for the comprehensive teaching role. Furthermore, both formal and informal workplace learning could have been given more attention and been better supported within the schools.

KEYWORDS:

• Workplace learning
• formal and informal learning
• newly qualified teachers
• secondary school

Introduction

Previous research indicates that newly qualified face a gap between the knowledge acquired through formal education and the skills needed in their respective workplaces (Tynjälä, 2008). General knowledge transmitted at universities is not adapted to specific situations, whereas practical knowledge is situated and develops through experiences (Eraut, 2004; Hermansen & Mausethagen, 2016). Many graduates perceive the most crucial professional skills to be acquired in the workplace (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). While a period with gradually increasing responsibilities is common in many professions, teachers assume full responsibility from the very first day (Aspfors & Bondas, 2013). Consequently, the transition from education to work may be particularly challenging for NQTs compared to other graduates. There is a well-known discrepancy between NQTs’ perception of teaching perceived in teacher education and the reality they experience as NQTs (Caspersen & Raaen, 2014; Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020). Furthermore, teaching is perceived as a particular stressful occupation (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2018), and heavy workload is a common reason for leaving the profession (Perryman & Calvert, 2020). While the performative aspects of teachers’ work have received great attention (Hermansen, Lorentzen, Mausethagen, & Zlatanovic, 2018), there are several invisible components like the planning, decision making, moment-to-moment adjustment to student actions, and professional reflection (Labaree, 2005). Additionally, NQTs entrance into teaching is not only related to the classroom activities; it is also about teachers’ socialisation into the school as an organisation and being accepted as a legitimate participant among the staff (Caspersen & Raaen, 2014; Rots, Kelchtermans, & Aelterman, 2012).

This article focuses on newly qualified teachers’ (NQTs’) workplace learning during the induction phase. Although extensive research has examined the transition from student to teacher and the early phases of teaching (Flores, 2020), there are relatively few studies exclusively dedicated to NQTs’ workplace learning. Furthermore, Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, and Donche (2016) noted that research on teachers’ everyday learning is limited. Therefore, by exploring what and how NQTs learn during their first year of teaching, this study aims to contribute knowledge that can enhance teacher education and improve the induction phase for NQTs.

The study is part of a broader research endeavour that seeks to deepen the understanding of the first year in teaching as it (Kvam, Ulvik, & Eide, 2023). Through monthly emails and interviews in the end of the year, the study follows 15 NQTs during their first year of teaching. In a previous study, we analysed the data through the lens of micropolitics (see Kvam, Ulvik, & Eide, 2023). This study explores how NQTs describe their learning experiences, encompassing the acquisition of professional knowledge, skills, and attitudes during their work. Professional knowledge relates to subject matter content and pedagogical content knowledge. Skills has to do with what NQTs are able to do with what they have learned. Attitudes relate to beliefs about learning and about themselves (Merchie et al. 2018).

The research question is as follows:

What do NQTs learn in the workplace and how do they go about learning during their first year of teaching?

Workplace learning

Continuous learning has gained immense importance in a changing society, necessitating a focus on workplace learning in educational contexts (Tynjälä, 2008). Workplace learning takes place in environments and through activities that are rarely specifically designed for learning purposes (Eraut, 2004, Hoekstra et al. 2007). Instead, the learning is integrated in the work process (Hoekstra et al. 2007).

Learning at work primarily happens through actions, proactive engagement, and the pursuit of learning opportunities (Eraut, 2007). This active role can be challenging for new members of an organisation. They require a manageable workload that allows them sufficient time and space to thoughtfully respond to new challenges. A heavy workload may lead to hasty solutions and reliance on stereotypes instead of thoroughly considered practices (Eraut, 2004). Additionally, the promotion or hindrance of workplace learning depends on the allocation of jobs and the social climate of the workplace (Eraut, 2004). While work pressure and stress can impede learning (Eraut & Hirsh, 2007), certain challenges can be beneficial if sufficient support is provided. Successfully overcoming challenges can enhance professionals’ confidence, highlighting the triangular relationship between challenge, support, and confidence (Eraut, 2007).

Teachers’ learning is considered crucial for school development and student learning (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). It is suggested that this learning should be viewed as an ongoing process, encompassing various forms of learning from teacher education to retirement (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). Moreover, workplace learning should be facilitated through factors such as available time, a trusting relationship among stakeholders, and a workplace environment that addresses the individual needs of newly qualified teachers (Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020).

Hoekstra et al. (2007) highlight that teachers’ learning can be both a social endeavour and an individual pursuit, involving actions as well as reflection. However, lack of dedicated time can impact teachers’ ability to engage in reflection. For NQTs, fostering good relationship with colleagues and engaging in activities closely connected to practice are crucial (Mansfield & Gu, 2019). Support from colleagues plays an important role in overcoming challenges in the first years of teaching (Thomas et al., 2019). This support is positively related to job satisfaction and intrinsic motivation to teach. However, a study from Norway found that NQTs experienced different induction practices labelled as solo, collaborative, or collective (Antonsen, Jakhelln, Aspfors, & Bjørndal, 2023). In the first case the NQTs had to manage by themselves with weak bonding to and support from their colleagues. Collaborative and collective practices, however, provided opportunities for informal learning and collaboration in teaching. Furthermore, there seem to be some differences between experienced and new teachers’ learning in terms of their attitudes towards learning, learning outcomes, and how the teachers are influenced by context (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). Experienced teachers tend to be more selective and participate less in learning activities – and thereby safeguard their time. NQTs are more eager to learn but because of their status as newcomers are also more influenced by their working conditions, which they may not yet be in a position to change (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). They are at the mercy of their surroundings.

Learning activities can be categorised as either formal or informal (Eraut, 2007). Formal learning is associated with institutionalised and planned activities referring to structured learning activities in terms of time, space, goals, and support (Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020; Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). The core objective in formal learning is to learn, and examples of activities that promote such learning are: mentoring, shadowing and conferences (Eraut & Hirsh, 2007). Formal learning has the greatest impact when it is relevant and well-timed for professionals (Eraut, 2007). Informal learning is a less defined concept (Lecat, Spaltman, Beausaert, Raemdonck, & Kyndt, 2020). Building on Eraut’s (2004) work, this approach offers learners greater flexibility and freedom while recognising the significance of social aspects in learning from others. This way of learning emerges through engagement in daily work-related activities, where learning is not the primary objective (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). Eraut (2004) characterises informal workplace learning as implicit, unintended, opportunistic, and unstructured, with the absence of a teacher. It takes place through everyday life and is contextual and unpredictable (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). Informal learning is regarded as the most frequent and preferred approach to learning in the workplace (Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020; Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016).

It is worth noting that in the teaching profession, the boundaries between formal and informal learning are blurred (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). Professional learning and collaboration are inherent to teachers’ roles and schedules. Teachers have opportunities for both formal and informal learning, and it has been suggested that optimal learning occurs when these two approaches are combined (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). Implicit informal learning can be transformed into explicit learning through formal learning processes (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016).

However, not all learning at work is beneficial as it can reinforce existing biases and poor practices (Hoekstra et al. 2007, Imants & van Veen, 2010). Both forms of learning have their drawbacks. For example, formal learning may lack proximity to practice (Eraut, 2007), while informal learning may rely on chance occurrences and result in the new employees simply adapting to the existing organisational culture (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). Certain conditions must be in place to support teachers’ positive learning. Establishing good professional relationships and fostering a collaborative school culture are crucial. Conversely, a lack of connections with colleagues, part-time employment, and limited career opportunities create distance from the workplace and can hinder learning (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016).

The study

Context

This study, related to NQTs workplace learning, was conducted among newly qualified secondary school teachers in Norway. Even though there is a teacher shortage in Norway, it can still be hard to obtain a permanent full-time position, especially in upper secondary schools in urban areas (Wiggen & Fetscher, 2021). NQTs often have to accept whatever job opportunities that are available, which was the case for many in our sample.

In Norway, NQTs can expect a collaborative culture and mutual support among colleagues (OECD, 2020). Schools have implemented several schemes that support formal workplace learning (SFS 2213). One of these schemes includes six days allocated for staff planning throughout the school year, another consists of mandatory meetings held on a weekly basis. Some meetings involve the entire staff, while others are specific to teachers of the same grade, subject, or those participating in ad hoc collaboration groups. An arena for informal learning is the teachers’ offices where the NQTs collaborate with experienced colleagues.

There are also specific schemes meant for NQTs in order to support their learning. They are granted a six per cent reduced teaching to facilitate time and space for their learning process, and they can expect to be mentored. There are national guidelines for mentoring (MER Ministry of Education and Research, 2018), and an agreement among crucial stakeholders to follow the guidelines. Mentoring is intended to enhance professional growth and to support NQTs. This includes regular meetings and no form of assessment. Mentoring is supposed to be given individually and in groups and to be carried out by qualified mentors who have 30 credits in mentoring from formal education. However, despite being initiated by the government, the mentoring scheme is not legally mandated. An evaluation has shown that not all NQTs are offered mentoring (only 54% in upper secondary school), and the extent of mentoring provided may be limited (Rambøll, 2021).

Sample

The sample consisted of 15 teachers (T1–T15) – three males and twelve females (see Table 1) all holding master’s degrees. Initially a cohort of nearly 60 postgraduate student teachers were informed about the project. Information was given orally at a seminar in the end of the year and in written form on the university’s learning platform. To establish contact after their departure from the university, the student teachers were requested to share their personal email addresses with us, their teacher educators. We obtained email addresses from about half of the cohort, and to avoid putting pressure on them, we did not send any reminders. When the school year started in August and we were not in a formal power relation with the students, we sent emails containing detailed information about the project and extended formal invitations to the group to participate. Some individuals did not respond to the email, while others informed us that they had not been offered a job. Ultimately, 12 individuals gave their consent to participate. Additionally, we reached out to school leaders in our university’s partner schools, requesting them to disseminate information about the project among their NQTs, leading to the recruitment of three new teachers. The teachers worked in different schools and in varied municipalities and counties. Only one of the 15 teachers had obtained a permanent position. Six teachers taught in lower secondary schools (grades 8 to 10), six in upper secondary schools (grades 11 to 13) and three in combined primary and secondary schools (grades 1 to 10). While six teachers had secured full-time positions, several part-time teachers accepted ad hoc temporary teaching assignments to supplement their income. Nine teachers had to deal with out-of-field teaching, meaning teaching that they had not been educated for. Six teachers assumed the role of form tutors, which encompasses extensive responsibilities related to practical, administrative, and social matters concerning approximately 15 students, as well as regular interaction with parents.

Table 1. Information about participants.

	School	Position	Classes	Form tutor?	Mentoring?	Out of field teaching?
T1	Lower secondary	100%, temporary	3	Yes	Limited	Yes
T2	1–10	80%, temporary	5	No	Yes	Yes
T3	Upper secondary	97,29%, temporary	5	Yes	Limited
T4	Upper secondary	80%, temporary	3	No	Limited
T5	Upper secondary	99,13%, temporary	5	No	Limited
T6	1–10	40%, temporary	4	No	No	Yes
T7	Upper secondary	17%, temporary	1	No	Limited
T8	Lower secondary	100%, temporary	8	No	(Not interviewed)
T9	Upper secondary	88%, temporary	4	No	No	Yes
T10	Lower secondary	78%, permanent	6	Yes	Limited	Yes
T11	Lower secondary	100%, temporary	4	No	Limited	Yes
T12	Lower secondary	100%, temporary	3	No	No	Yes
T13	1–10	100%, temporary	2	Yes	Limited	Yes
T14	Upper secondary	100%, temporary	4	Yes	Limited
T15	Lower secondary	95%, temporary	4	Yes	Limited	Yes

The NQTs gave confirmed consent to participate in the project. Some of them knew us as their previous teacher educators. They seemed to appreciate the relationship and wrote rather long emails. Some thanked us for being invited to the project, and some described the participation as a safety valve. This corresponds with a study that found it can be easier for NQTs to share problems and concerns with someone outside of their school (März & Kelchtermans, 2020).

Method

The study can be described as a short term longitudinal qualitative study (Lindqvist, Weurlander, Wernerson, & Thornberg, 2020). Over the course of a year, 15 secondary school teachers provided monthly email reports, rating how well they managed their work on a scale from one to ten and providing explanations for their scores. At the end of the year, the scores were visualised through line graphs, and the NQTs were interviewed about their storylines. The story-line tool was inspired by a smaller study conducted by the first author (Ulvik, 2022) revealing that writing the monthly emails promoted reflection. Furthermore, following a process of professional development as it un-folds, provided deeper insight in the process and made it easier for participants in a final interview to recall their experiences during the year. The first author was responsible for contacting the NQTs and also gave some response to their emails to maintain the contact. On average, the participants responded with 180 words each month. In the final month, June, individual interviews were conducted via Zoom software with 14 teachers to explore their storylines. T8 chose not to participate in the interview. The interviews, lasting from 45–90 minutes, were conducted by the three researchers. Initially, the participants were asked to share their overall thoughts on their first year of teaching. Subsequently, they were presented with the line graph of their profile throughout the course of the year and were invited to comment on the storyline. Furthermore, the participants were asked about their responsibilities, the support they received, collaboration with colleagues, their level of preparedness for teaching, and the lessons they learned during the year. Finally, they were asked to express their perspectives on their future within the teaching profession. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and anonymised by a research assistant. The selected quotes were translated from Norwegian to English by the researchers.

Analysis

In the context of the current study, the textual data has been analysed through the lens of workplace learning, defined as engaging in activities that bring about changes in practices and/or cognition (Hoekstra et al. 2007; Imants & van Veen, 2010). The analysis of both the emailed texts and transcribed interviews can be described as abductive (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2018). This approach involved interpreting the data in the context of our theoretical framework and engaging in a hermeneutic process that alternated between theory and data. To ensure a strong foundation in the data, we adopted a combined approach, as suggested by Hatch (2002), integrating thematical and interpretative analyses. The analysis process consisted of two phases. In the first phase we read through the data to get an overview of it. Then we marked every part of the text that could be related to what and how NQTs learn at a workplace. The marked texts were inserted in a table. Afterwards we extensively reviewed the selected data, identifying key themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006) that aligned with the focus of our study. In the next phase, we delved into a more intuitive interpretation of the themes, constantly referring back and forth between the empirical data and theoretical insights. Throughout both phases of the analysis, we first worked individually then in a moderation process, where we compared and discussed our individual findings. While the quotes extracted from the emails are marked with the respective month they were sent, the quotes from the interviews are not.

Findings

We found that in the first year of teaching, the NQTs learned about being a teacher, about themselves, their subject and the school as an organisation. They learned through experiences and from others. In the following we will elaborate on these findings and first address what and then how NQTs learn during their first year of teaching.

What has been learned at the workplace?

Learning about what it means to be a teacher

The NQTs were aware that “there is something you have to learn when you start work” (T9) but were “not prepared for everything that comes in addition to teaching in the classroom” (T13). In August, due to a lack of overview and control, some were “exhausted and stressed” (T1, Aug.). They described the beginning of their school experience as “chaotic” (T4, Aug.) and had to “plan day by day” (T5, Aug).

Initially, one major challenge was to encounter a lot of assignments they were not prepared for during teacher education, such as out-of-field teaching, contact with parents, and planning for the entire school year. They were also surprised by teachers’ workload, especially in terms of student assessment.

During the first year, the teachers gained a deeper understanding of the teaching profession. One of them explained:

I know a lot more than I had imagined about how I should teach, what works and what does not work for students’ learning, what students like or dislike, what motivates them or not etc. (T11, Jan.)

Furthermore, they learned how to interact with their students and build positive relationships. One of the NQTs who initially found it challenging to handle 150 students expressed:

It is the contact with the students that is the best part of this job, and the relationships only get better and better with every month. I have started to understand their needs and consequently, it has become easier to teach. (T3, Nov.)

In addition to fostering positive relationships, gaining a better understanding of the various factors influencing their teaching made it easier to fulfil their responsibilities:

There are so many details that can affect it […] what happened in the previous lesson, if the weather is nice, if it is at the start or the end of the day. (T11)

Being a teacher was also described as having “to give of oneself” (T7). As the year progressed, the NQTs felt more effective and secure in their roles, enabling them to improvise and make quick decisions. “Now I play more by the ear” (T4, Oct.), one of them stated.

Furthermore, being a teacher is a continuous learning process. One NQT articulated: “If you are a teacher, it may be you that learn the most, because you learn your whole life” (T7). On one hand, workplace learning does pose a challenge, but on the other hand, the NQTs seemed to enjoy acquiring new knowledge. For example, as T10 said: “I like change and that something new is happening”.

By the end of the first year, the NQTs had mastered the administrative and practical aspects of their job. They had an overview of the annual cycle, identified areas for improvement in the future and had a repertoire of teaching plans. They also knew more about managing their time effectively. The entire group expressed a positive personal growth throughout their first year of teaching. Starting with a challenging beginning focused on themselves, the NQTs gradually shifted their focus towards their students’ learning and development, indicating a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of their profession.

Learning about themselves

As newcomers to the school, the NQTs faced the task of defining their roles. One teacher explained: “It is important to define one’s own role and especially the limitations of the job. It is easy to do more than the employer expects […] I think it is important to have ownership to the job” (T3). During the year, the teachers gradually took more ownership of their roles. One teacher eventually felt confident enough to deviate from the textbook and follow her own methods (T4, Jan.). Another challenged a colleague and demanded more responsibility (T13, Sept.) while a third incorporated more improvisation into his teaching (T3).

In the workplace, the NQTs learned about themselves and what they are, or not, good at. One was surprised by how much she enjoyed working with students (T4). Another felt she had become quite good at making assessments and giving feedback (T11, Sept.). One (T9, Dec.) “wanted to be stricter” while another (T10, Feb.) discovered that she had to learn to take things as they come. One NQT (T11, April) discovered that what worked for others did not always work when she tried the same approach. In hindsight, a participant (T14, April) realised the need to clarify her expectations from the beginning. Another described herself as someone who is not afraid to ask questions (T15, Jan.) and one found that she is a person who find joy in the process of learning (T6). One admitted being overly concerned with being liked by the students (T9), while another felt inadequate in teaching her subject (T11, Feb.).

Through interactions with students, colleagues, and the school organisation, the NQTs gained an understanding of the multifaceted nature of their new profession. They became aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and started to discover what kind of teachers they aspired to be. The NQTs personalities and contexts varied, resulting in different learning needs and outcomes.

Learning about subjects

One of the secondary teachers’ strengths lies in their subject knowledge, as most of them have studied their respective subjects for at least five years. This strong foundation in their subjects is valuable in lesson planning and provides them with a sense of confidence in their new roles. One teacher explained: “Thorough subject knowledge helps a lot and makes it possible to improvise when things do not go as planned” (T3, Aug.). Another described how her mastery of the subjects made her feel secure (T4, Jan.). The teachers recognised their subject knowledge as a resource.

However, the NQTs’ subject knowledge was sometimes challenged, which required further development. This process was time consuming and added to their workload, as expressed by T1:

I feel that I have used a lot of time to learn new things or to refresh the knowledge I already have. To gain new knowledge in order to pass it on to the students takes time.

There were instances where the teachers had to teach topics they were not familiar with or where their knowledge needed updating. In addition to their main subject, the teachers may have been educated in subjects they had studied years ago or only studied for a short period. Teaching these subjects required additional preparation, as illustrated in the following: “There is a lot I need to remind myself of before the lessons” (T9, Sept.).

Even with adequate subject knowledge, the NQTs’ pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge about teaching the subject, (Shulman, 2004) may have been limited, and they needed to learn how to effectively teach the subject. As one NQT stated, it is not easy “to plan for the individual students” future academic development’ (T7, Feb.). Assessments proved to be challenging: “How do I know where the level should be?” one of the teachers asked (T11, Dec.). “I should have […] demanded more both when it came to the subject and the students” focus during the lessons’, T14 admitted in February. One teacher found it challenging “to adapt the teaching in classes where there were gaps in students” interests and levels’ (T2, Feb.). Another found it “hard to teach students who struggle with the subject but did not do anything to improve” (T5, Sept.). However, during the year, the NQTs’ pedagogical skills did develop. One teacher explained: “I gradually felt that I got the hang of teaching and was able to explain things in a more accessible way” (T9).

Although the teachers were confident in their subjects, they expanded and refreshed their knowledge. However, the main challenge regarding subject knowledge rose from the extensive use of out-of-field-teaching. One teacher claimed: “I find it very hard to teach something I have not studied […] and it changes how well I feel I manage” (T11, Sept.). Some teachers only taught subjects unrelated to their university studies, requiring them to familiarise themselves with entirely new subjects on top of everything else they had to learn in the workplace.

Learning about the organisation

In addition to learning about teaching, new teachers also “become part of a teaching community” (T13) and must relate to and learn about an established organisation, with its culture and logistics. The teachers mainly described a culture of debriefing and sharing. However, being a newcomer, it can be hard to fit in. One NQT who participated in a development project expressed: “I do not feel that I had much to contribute with” (T11, Sept.). She was included, but for her, the project became a burden. All the NQTs mentioned experiencing a friendly and supportive atmosphere, but they also learned that schools are busy workplaces. One teacher stated: “I miss more collaboration when it comes to subjects”, (T7, Feb.).

Workplace learning about schools as organisations is context dependent. Some communities are small, while others are large and complex. A teacher who started in a large school described her introduction to the workplace as: “Here is your office, now you have to manage by yourself” (T4). Conversely, a teacher in a small school described how the school facilitated such that the staff could get to know each other: ‘We have worked together closely and went on a trip to a cabin to work together before the planning day (T2, Sept.).

Learning about schools as organisations also entails understanding different leadership practices in various contexts. There are substantial differences, as illustrated by the following quotes:

The leadership is incredibly good at listening to the staff. (T2, Aug.)

My leader is not supportive of NQTs. She wants me to manage everything from the start. (T9, Dec.)

I have felt so welcomed. The leadership even sent me flowers before my first day. (T13, Aug.)

The NQTs also learn that not all expectations and guidelines from the leadership need to be strictly followed. Some things must be prioritised, others not. For example, in relation to writing reports, one teacher expressed frustration, saying: “It is so annoying when you use a lot of time, and then the others say: It’s not important, it will never be used!” (T10). Without an overview of their role and the school, it is hard to know what to prioritise.

Regarding national guidelines for mentoring, the NQTs learned that they were not followed. Only one teacher had regular meetings with a mentor. Some had group meetings arranged by the municipality. The new teachers knew that they should have been offered mentoring, leading some to request a mentor, but many without getting one. Even the entitlement to a six percent reduction in teaching workload was not automatically offered.

How do NQTs learn in the workplace?

Learning by experience

Initially, the NQTs needed to develop their practical experiences through experimentation and trial and error. One teacher claimed that “practice makes perfect”, and continued:

You need to try different teaching methods to see what works best. It’s about trying and learning from your mistakes. […] You are allowed to make mistakes, but you have to learn from them. (T12)

As time progressed, the NQTs discovered that various tasks became easier. The first time is always the hardest. Even by September, many of them noticed improvements. A typical quote from a NQTs is the following: “I manage teaching better now, because I know the students and the colleagues, and I have a better overview” (T11, Sept.). Experiences also encouraged the NQTs to consider their own practice, as explained in the following example: “I realise that I use too much time writing feedback, suppose they are too thorough” (T1, Dec.)

Learning from others

An essential aspect of workplace learning for NQTs involves seeking ideas and assistance from colleagues. One respondent noted: “The help we get from colleagues is crucial in managing a large part of the job” (T12, May). Another teacher summed up a common experience by saying: “There are so many who will help you if you ask them; you just have to understand that you have to ask for help and not wait for it” (T4). One teacher recommended that fellow NQTs “had to use the available network” (T3, Feb.). The quotes illustrate that workplace learning greatly relies on the initiative shown by NQTs themselves.

Shared offices provided an important setting for informal workplace learning:

I am surrounded by good colleagues I am starting to know quite well and who encourage and support me (T6, Aug.)

We have ongoing and close contact and dialogue about everything that happens. Everyone who teaches grade 9 are in the same office. (T1)

In the offices, the NQTs found mutual support and dialogue. However, due to work pressure and out-of-field teaching, it may be tempting to simply replicate their colleagues’ methods. As one teacher explained: “This autumn, I just followed a rough plan two of my colleagues had developed just to get to know the subject” (T13). The teacher continued: “When you teach subjects you haven’t been taught, […] then you lean on your colleagues”.

The mode of learning can also depend on the size of the school. “In a small school the support is very close” (T4), stated one teacher. Conversely, a teacher in a larger school had a different experience: “It is mostly we, the new teachers, who discuss and talk together” (T5). Although help from colleagues is appreciated, there are instances where busy colleagues may not always be ready to collaborate. One of the NQTs explained: “I cross my fingers that the other English teachers have time for a meeting in the new year” (T13, Dec.). Another complained: “I wish the others could contribute a bit more” (T1, Aug.). The following quote illustrates the usefulness of receiving support without having to explicitly ask for it:

It’s not easy to know what one should ask for. Sometimes it would have been great to know before one comes up with a question. It’s not always the case that there is someone nearby to ask. If you are in the classroom, you cannot walk out and ask someone else about what to do in a specific situation. (T11)

Moreover, the new teachers sometimes felt inferior when collaborating with experienced teachers. “In the Religious Education class, I felt that he [the experienced teacher] helped me rather than collaborated”, T9 explained. Others encountered teachers who did not even want to support or collaborate with new teachers: “There were three of us that had to develop an all-day test and the older teacher was completely absent and unwilling to collaborate because he wanted to do it entirely in his own way” (T3). Even if there was collaboration, one teacher felt “that some of the teachers talked a lot about what they always talked about” (T7). The new teacher did not feel included in the conversation.

At times, NQTs required information or practical assistance from the leadership. However, despite the door theoretically being open, it was not always the case in practice.: “I feel they are very busy. You stand outside the door, and then they are at some meeting. Or you send them an email and they don’t answer” (T7).

Apart from learning from colleagues, reading also served as a valuable learning method for NQTs. The responses indicated that some NQTs turned to literature from their teacher education, while others independently searched for relevant literature:

A lot of the literature from my education has been helpful (T5).

[…] selective mutism was quite new for me. I tried to find specialist literature from special needs education (T2).

Social media also emerged as a common informal channel for workplace learning, as illustrated by T15: “I have discussed a lot on FaceTime or on Messenger with friends […] And there is a Facebook group where I get some inspiration”.

Some learning from others occurred through formal channels. Every school in the study conducted different meetings for specific teams of teachers, or for all staff members, as is expected in Norway. These meetings varied in their usefulness. One NQT explained: “We have time earmarked for professional development every week that often follows a strict format decided on by the leadership. It has not been very relevant for my teaching practice” (T1). Another NQT described:

In my school there are some formal channels that appear symbolic. […] Most of the collaboration happens informally which works quite well. […] I think the leadership agrees, but then they have the formal [channels] in place. (T3)

Repeatedly expressed by the NQTs, meetings can be beneficial when they are connected to what happens in the classroom. Formal meetings among collaborating teams were preferred, over plenary meetings.

Having a formal mentor, whose official role included to answering questions and providing follow-up support, was highly appreciated. One participant explained:

I told them (the leadership) that it would be good to have a mentor. You ask the teachers you share an office with questions, and you do get help. But they are not paid for answering all the questions you have. (T10)

However, even when a formal arrangement with an appointed mentor was in place, it did not always work effectively. One teacher mentioned that the formal mentoring ceased shortly after it began, and informal sharing of knowledge in the teachers’ office had been the most important part of workplace learning: “There are six of us in the room, and I only have to turn around and ask someone about something” (T3). Only one teacher (T2) received mentoring in accordance with the national guidelines.

Formal learning occasionally happened through formal courses. Additionally, due to out-of-field teaching or to enhance their own competence for better career prospects, some teachers pursued further education within their first year.

By the end of the year, the NQTs had developed routines and were able to reflect on and learn from their own practices. They all expressed a desire to continue as teachers and had ideas on how to further develop their teaching approaches.

Discussion

Focusing on what and how NQTs learn in the workplace, the findings indicate that NQTs face significant learning demands compared to experienced teachers. Despite the importance of supporting NQTs (OECD, 2020), their learning largely relied on self-initiative and informal learning depending on their colleagues’ goodwill. The participants encountered numerous unfamiliar tasks for which they were unprepared from teacher education. They quickly realised that teaching encompasses much more than what their education had revealed, such as the workload and the more invisible parts of teaching (Labaree, 2005; Perryman & Calvert, 2020). While secondary school teachers often focus on their subject matter, they need mentors in practicum that are aware of the importance of presenting a comprehensive teaching role (Ulvik, Eide, Helleve & Kvam, 2021). Initially, the NQTs struggled to gain a comprehensive understanding of their responsibilities and lacked the necessary skills to handle non-classroom aspects such as administrative and practical issues. More information could help overcome some of these issues. Additionally, the NQTs had to enhance their understanding of teaching, learning, and relationship-building within the classroom. However, without mentoring or adequate time for reflection and considering alternatives, there is a risk that they may resort to coping strategies rather than developing well-considered practices (Eraut, 2004).

The NQTs’ self-understanding as teachers developed gradually, requiring them to make decisions about the kind of teachers they aspired to become (Kelchtermans, 2009). This process is shaped by the interplay between the individual and the workplace, with external feedback from students, colleagues and leadership playing a crucial role. Support and experiences of mastery are pivotal within this cycle (Eraut, 2007) – and can be initiated already during teacher education. For NQTs with fewer mastery experiences compared to their senior colleagues, the lack of positive experiences has a more significant influence on what sustains and motivates them than negative events (Morgan, Ludlow, Kitching, O’Leary, & Clarke, 2010). The NQTs in this study displayed a positive attitude at the end of the year, indicating that they had a fair share of positive experiences.

While Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, and Donche (2016) conclude that subject knowledge is one of three areas in which teachers’ workplace learning occurs, the NQTs in this study felt confident in their subject matter expertise, even if they needed to refresh their knowledge on certain subjects or themes. The main subject-related challenges revolved around pedagogical content knowledge, how to teach their subject(s) (Shulman 2004) and out-of-field-teaching. We were surprised to discover that nine of fifteen teachers were required to engage in out-of-field-teaching. The challenges resulted in many decisions to make for the first time and new subjects to familiarise themselves with. These are issues that experienced teachers who know more about positioning themselves in the organisation encounter to a lesser extent (Kvam, Ulvik, & Eide, 2023).

For newcomers, workplace learning also includes learning about an organisation. While teacher education may offer some general insight into schools, the NQTs’ workplace learning also involved familiarising themselves with the unique dynamics and micro-politics of the specific school they have joined (Kvam, Ulvik, & Eide, 2023). School cultures differ, and each school operates under its own set of rules and presents distinct opportunities that require time to comprehend. The contextual frameworks within which teachers work bear substantial significance (Hermansen, Lorentzen, Mausethagen, & Zlatanovic, 2018).

The NQTs’ willingness to take on new responsibilities and to learn was significant. They enjoyed learning, but their efforts were also driven by a desire to maintain their temporary positions and be perceived as competent. They want to be part of the team (Thomas et al., 2019). Thereby, collaborative school cultures are important for new members in the organisation. Initially, their focus seems to be on managing day-to-day demands. Work pressures made it difficult to plan ahead and there was limited time for reflection and to implement well thought-out learning. Effective learning necessitates reflection. To learn from practice in a transferable way demands time and energy and mentoring that goes beyond immediate challenges (Mena, Hennissen, & Loughran, 2017). However, when NQTs are preoccupied with coping and survival, their professional learning may suffer (Eraut, 2004).

While some of the workplace learning occurred through NQTs’ own experimenting, the most substantial learning took place through interactions with others. The NQTs learned from colleagues, through reading professional literature, and by engaging with social media. Previous studies have stated that informal learning is widely appreciated and that NQTs are actively searching for informal support (Mansfield & Gu, 2019, Colognesi; März & Kelchtermans, 2020; Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020). In this study, such learning predominately took place in the teachers’ offices, facilitated by informal collaboration and as a result of friendly and helpful colleagues and leaders who encouraged the NQTs to ask questions. However, with unfamiliar tasks and time pressures it can be easy to adopt a routine of emulating colleagues, conforming to perceived expectations, and assimilating into the existing school culture.

When it comes to interacting with colleagues, certain challenges may arise. Schools are busy workplaces and supporting teachers’ learning is not a primary purpose (Eraut, 2007). There is not always someone to ask, and it can be difficult to know even what to ask. Furthermore, NQTs do not want to bother colleagues. Therefore, it not easy for newcomers to be proactive in their learning process. As a result of the mentioned obstacles and challenges, informal and self-initiated learning for NQTs can be insufficient (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016).

The NQTs reported that formal learning predominantly happened through team meetings or plenary meetings involving all staff members. Formal meetings can be beneficial, but it depends on their relevance to classroom practices (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). Professional development presupposes teachers’ ownership (Timperley et al. 2007). The plenary meetings were often organised and led by the leadership, leaving limited room for teachers’ influence over content and format. In contrast, team meetings worked better, but sometimes the new teachers did not feel included or being able to contribute. On one hand they need support, on the other they want to be perceived as competent (Kvam, Ulvik, & Eide, 2023).

Based on our study, we support Tynjälä (2008) suggestion of combining formal and informal learning, rather than viewing them as dichotomous (Eraut, 2004; Mansfield & Gu, 2019). Instead, the two can complement each other. Informal learning can address learners’ specific needs and interests (Eraut, 2004; März & Kelchtermans, 2020), but the challenge is that it may happen more or less by chance (Hoekstra et al., 2007). Planned formal learning might offer time for reflection and processing of experiences, thereby limiting accidental learning. However, there is a risk that teachers may perceive formal learning as irrelevant (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016). In our study we found that formal activities often triggered informal learning. Formal meetings facilitated further informal interactions while organising teachers into formal teams and in offices made informal collaboration easier. Implicit informal learning can be made explicit through formal learning (Kyndt, Gijbels, Grosemans, & Donche, 2016).

Learning from others also involved self-initiated reading of professional literature. The NQTs drew on literature from their teacher education, and they also sought out other relevant literature, facilitated by their master’s studies. Therefore, the literature that NQTs are exposed to during their teacher education, as well as their ability to effectively search for relevant literature, can be of significant importance. Additionally, we found that the NQTs’ workplace learning on their own initiative was supported by external sources, such as various social media groups – often with peers from teacher education.

Even if there often was someone to ask, and the NQTs gradually developed a supporting network, there was a common desire among the NQTs to have an appointed mentor. Having a formal mentor offers the advantage of having someone specifically dedicated to supporting NQTs. In Norway, qualified mentors undergo formal education, and possess knowledge about NQTs and professional development. Their role has been described as a profession within a profession (Smith, 2015). Mentors can serve as reflective partners, proactively addressing potential challenges before they arise through formal as well as informal meetings with their mentees. However, some NQTs did not have access to mentoring, while others who did, found the programme to be ineffective, often due to insufficient time allocated for mentoring. For mentoring to work, mentors must understand their responsibilities and have adequate time to devote to NQTs and be capable of tailoring the mentoring process to meet the individual needs of NQTs (Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020). Despite the strong expectation that NQTs in Norway receive mentoring, it seems that the agreement is not effectively implemented as long as it is not legally required.

When considering the NQTs’ working conditions, it raises questions about recruitment policies and how assignments are distributed among staff. However, placing teachers in offices alongside their closest colleagues appear to be a wise decision. This arrangement ensures that new teachers have convenient access to informal learning. Furthermore, it fosters positive relationships and creates a supportive social environment, which is crucial for effective workplace learning (Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020; Eraut, 2004) – something that appears to be the case for the participants in this study. Nevertheless, heavy workload and full timetables of teachers, present obstacles to achieving a positive learning environment. Time availability is one of the conditions for professional development in the workplace (Colognesi, Van Nieuwenhoven, & Beausaert, 2020). In Norwegian schools all teachers have officially scheduled time for formal meetings as part of their job, indicating that there is allocated time for professional learning. However, it is essential that this time is utilised in a manner that teachers find valuable. Offering working conditions that support teachers’ collaboration is part of school leaders’ responsibilities (Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2020). If meetings are merely symbolic or seem irrelevant to the teachers’ everyday classroom experiences – as was the case for some NQTs in this study – then such meetings may become an additional burden on an already overwhelming workload.

Limitations

This study focuses on the learning experiences described by a group of self-selected secondary school NQTs from one national context. Other NQTs might have a different experience. Furthermore, Eraut (2007) highlights several methodological problems concerning workplace learning. One challenge is the tacit dimension of professional knowledge, which can be challenging to articulate. Another is the role of implicit learning, which occurs unconsciously. A third challenge is the complexity of situations professionals encounter, necessitating complex knowledge. Therefore, while the study offers insights into the learning that occurs during the first year of teaching, it is important to acknowledge that the NQTs likely have acquired substantial knowledge that remains undocumented and unexplored by this study.

Conclusion and implications

The NQTs in this study describe their first year of teaching as a challenging and steep learning curve. Encountering numerous tasks and responsibilities for the first time they simultaneously learn what it means to be a teacher and they learn about themselves, the subject and the organisation in which they work. In a situation with job insecurity and difficult working conditions they learn through experiences, trial and error and through interaction with others. Despite the strong expectation that all NQTs in Norway should perceive formal mentoring by educated mentors, their learning is primarily informal, self-initiated and incidental, and their first year of teaching characterised by several features that impeded their professional growth. These factors include out-of-field teaching requirements, limited career opportunities and work pressure. The NQTs ability to navigate their first year of teaching is attributed to the strong sense of community among colleagues and their own expertise in their subject knowledge.

What are the implications of the study? Our findings indicate that teacher education should provide student teachers with opportunities for collaboration and networking, supporting them in gaining mastery experiences and preparing them for a comprehensive teaching role. This role involves invisible aspects and integration into an organisation. Furthermore, the education should equip candidates with solid subject knowledge and a theoretical foundation through the use of practice relevant course literature. To attain the aforementioned goals, schools and teacher education institution must work in partnership.

Supporting NQTs in their professional development at the workplace, necessitates providing stable job conditions, manageable workloads, dedicated time for learning, mentoring that goes beyond immediate challenges, and access to appropriate formal and informal learning channels. We suggest that allocating dedicated time with a qualified mentor could have alleviated some of the mentioned obstacles to learning and improved the outcome of NQTs’ induction phase, benefiting the NQTs themselves, their workplace, and their students. However, formal support structures alone are not sufficient. Recognising the importance of professional development and informal learning for all its members, schools need productive arenas for joint sharing and collaboration.

Workplace learning is a crucial aspect of professional development, but schools are busy environments where professional learning is not the primary focus. Therefore, workplace learning requires dedicated time. When time and support are lacking and professional learning is not prioritised from leaders, workplace learning becomes subject to chance and haphazard occurrences.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Marit Ulvik

Marit Ulvik is a Professor of Education at the Department of Education at the University of Bergen, Norway. Her main research interest is professional development, including research on teacher educators, teacher education, newly qualified teachers, mentoring, action research and teaching.

Liv Eide

Liv Eide is an Associate Professor of Education at the Department of Education at the University of Bergen. Her main research interests are critical pedagogy, Bildung, intercultural education, and teacher education.

Edel Karin Kvam

Edel Karin Kvam is a Professor of Education in the Department of Education at the University of Bergen, Norway. Kvam’s research interests are teacher’s professional development, teacher collaboration and mentoring students, new teachers, and colleagues.