Chinese university EFL learners’ perceptions of a blended learning model featuring precision teaching

ABSTRACT

The present quantitative study aims to explore how students perceived the incorporation of precision teaching with Pinpoint, Record, Change, and Evaluation (PRCE) in a blended English course. This study surveyed 80 non-English majors at a Chinese university and utilised a questionnaire that focused on online learning experience, interaction, teaching quality, and evaluation, and overall satisfaction. The analysis of students’ responses showed that the blended design based on precision teaching gained positive learner perceptions due to its greater spatial and temporal flexibility, accessibility, targeted classroom instruction, increased learning autonomy, and more learner-instructor interaction. This study also established that learners’ positive attitudes towards blended learning featuring precision teaching were significantly linked to teaching quality and evaluation. The findings are discussed in alignment with those of earlier research, and practical implications for foreign teaching and learning in Chinese universities are also provided.

KEYWORDS:

• Precision teaching
• overall satisfaction
• blended learning
• learner perceptions

1. Introduction

The advent of information and communication technologies has revolutionised instructional methodologies in higher education institutions worldwide (Wang et al., 2019). Blended learning, a mixture of online and face-to-face learning modalities, is one of the innovative approaches that complements and optimises traditional teaching and learning (Taghizadeh & Hajhosseini, 2021). Blended learning has been extensively researched across a variety of contexts, including English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching in Chinese universities (Alipour & Ehmke, 2020; Batista-Toledo & Gavilan, 2023; Cui, 2014; Dousti & Amirian, 2023; Ginns & Ellis, 2007; Yang, 2012). A line of research has reached a conclusion that learners prefer blended learning over conventional lecture-based instruction and purely e-learning (de Moura, de Souza, & Viana, 2021; Owston & York, 2018). Further, numerous studies have documented the factors (e.g. easier access to learning resources, immediate feedback from instructors, increased subjective learning gains, and better academic results) contributing to learner satisfaction with blended learning (Fisher, Perényi, & Birdthistle, 2021; Owston, York, & Murtha, 2013; Srivatanakul, 2022; Wang, 2010; Wu & Luo, 2022).

Another application of information technology in the education domain is precision teaching, which involves monitoring students’ learning process to identify potential learning problems so that the teacher can intervene to promote learning performance (Bruhn, Wehby, & Hasselbring, 2020; Kubina & Yurich, 2012; Mannion & Griffin, 2018). While research into the construction of a blended learning model based on precision teaching is a burgeoning topic, a handful of empirical studies have probed into this teaching model in programming, computer, and mathematics courses (Wu et al., 2022; Xing, 2020; Yin & Yuan, 2021). However, little is reported about foreign language learners’ experience of blended learning with the integration of precision teaching to date.

Given the novelty of a combination of blended learning and precision teaching in China, investigating the perception of this innovative approach is warranted, as it may hold great potential for adding value to language teaching in university EFL courses. Hence, the current study attempts to approach this learning model from the perspective of EFL learners at a Chinese university, uncovering the impacts of online learning experience, interaction, teaching quality, and evaluation on learners’ overall satisfaction.

2. Literature review

2.1. Precision teaching

Precision teaching is a well-established system in the fields of behaviour analysis and education (Evans, Bulla, & Kieta, 2021). In the 1960s, Ogden Lindsley firstly introduced the concept of Precision teaching grounded on Skinner’s behavioural learning theory. The goal of precision teaching is to trace and record learners’ observable and measurable learning behaviour to facilitate practitioners’ decision-making (White, 1986; Wu et al., 2022). According to White (2005), precision teaching is “a system for defining instructional targets, monitoring daily performance, and organizing and presenting performance data in a uniform manner to facilitate timely and effective instructional decisions” (p. 1433). Johnson and Street (2014) defined precision teaching in a broader context as “a monitoring, practice, and decision-making technology for improving performance of any kind” (p. 581). In the realm of education, this paper agrees with the claim given by White (2005) and defines precision teaching as a teaching method that continuously monitors and analyzes students’ learning process and behaviour, allowing teachers to make effective teaching decisions and carry out prompt interventions to maximise students’ learning outcomes.

After Lindsley coined the term “precision teaching” in 1960s, it was initially applied in the field of special education for school-aged children with autism and developmental disabilities (Bulla, Calkin, & Sawyer, 2021; Ramey et al., 2016). In the 1970s, precision teaching gained traction in the field of general education, particularly in primary school classrooms (Yu et al., 2023). In recent decades, precision teaching has been employed in a number of disciplines in tertiary education (Wu et al., 2022). For instance, precision teaching was used in psychology courses (Beneke, 1991), physics courses (Thomas, 1993), advanced mathematics courses (Xing, 2020) and programming courses (Yu et al., 2023) in universities of various countries. During the evolution of precision teaching over the years, researchers have developed a measurement called “fluency” to assess students’ mastery of learning. “fluency” encompasses both accuracy and speed, serving as benchmarks of precision teaching. Thus, students’ competent performance should be characterised by their accurate mastery of learning content and the speed at which they can use targeted knowledge and skills (Ramey et al., 2016). Previously, teachers dedicated many efforts to manually collect and analyse students’ learning behaviour. However, with the emergence of big data technologies, it is feasible to quantify and visually present students’ learning behaviour throughout the learning process with the assistance of smart teaching tools (Fu & Tan, 2017; Wu et al., 2022).

A large amount of research conducted over the years has demonstrated the benefits of precision teaching paradigm in education. These benefits include increased student motivation, enhanced student-teacher interaction, improved academic achievement, expanded professional knowledge, and promotion of self-learning and collaborative abilities (Datchuk, 2017; Mannion & Griffin, 2018; Sundhu & Kittles, 2016; Xing, 2020; Yin & Yuan, 2021; Yu et al., 2023). While some studies have examined the impacts of precision teaching on improving students’ reading and mathematical skills (e.g. Griffin & Murtagh, 2015; Xing, 2020), other studies have investigated the effects of precision teaching on second/foreign language acquisition (e.g. Cuzzocrea, Murdaca, & Oliva, 2011; Mannion & Griffin, 2018). In an experimental study, Mannion and Griffin (2018) focused on the potential value of precision teaching in improving Irish reading fluency among elementary school students, and the results suggested that compared to the control group, the experimental group exposed to precision teaching intervention exhibited greater improvement in reading fluency. In another study, Yu et al. (2023) incorporated precision teaching in a university programming course for freshmen. Researchers found that as opposed to the control group receiving conventional instructions, students taught via precision teaching reported more student-teacher interaction, higher learning efficiency, and greater programming literacy, and better cognitive skills (e.g. self-study ability, problem-solving skills, communication skills). However, despite the value of PT in the above-mentioned studies, PT still receives criticism as some scholars view it as a “mechanistic pedagogy”. Moran (2008) argued that utilising PT approach adds unneeded burden on teachers and students, leading to an unpleasant learning climate. In addition, the utility of precision teaching in the fields of literacy, numeracy skills and vocational skills is short of empirical investigations, implying that further studies are warranted to provide empirical evidence on the effectiveness of this evaluative method in different key skill areas (Ramey et al., 2016).

2.2. Blended learning

Graham (2006) viewed blended learning as “the combination of face-to-face instruction and computer-mediated instruction” (p. 5). Typically, face-to-face instruction occurs in a classroom setting at pre-scheduled times, whereas computer-mediated instruction occurs in a virtual environment with the support of web-based technology. As widely accepted by educators in higher education, blended learning refers to a mix of face-to-face and online learning (Medina, 2018; Owston & York, 2018; Srivatanakul, 2022).

Various studies have reported the benefits of the blended learning approach. One of the most-mentioned advantages of blended learning is the flexibility and accessibility offered by its online component, which allows students to manage learning plans at their own pace. For example, Srivatanakul (2022) surveyed a small sample of students taught in a blended format at York College and found that participants favoured the flexibility of online learning, as they could access video lectures at a pace conforming to their schedule. Meanwhile, participants expressed their preference towards the real-time feedback and direct interaction during in-person instructional sessions. These findings are well-aligned with preceding studies (Bouilheres, Le, McDonald, Nkhoma, & Jandug-Montera, 2020; Owston, York, & Murtha, 2013). Another frequently cited benefit of blended learning modality is students’ better learning outcomes in comparison with purely online or traditional teaching approaches. In a recent meta-analysis, Li (2022) provided solid evidence for the effectiveness of blended learning on EFL learners’ language performance. To be specific, a significant number of empirical studies have confirmed the potential of blended formats within the language teaching curriculum to improve learners’ grammar and vocabulary learning, listening skills, speaking ability, reading comprehension and writing proficiency (Alipour & Ehmke, 2020; Cui, 2014; Dousti & Amirian, 2023; Liu, Sands-Meyer, & Audran, 2019; Yang, 2012).

Additionally, blended learning initiatives are conducive to more peer-interaction and student-teacher interaction in both online and offline settings (de Moura, de Souza, & Viana, 2021; Wang; 2010). As Wang (2010) pointed out, online sessions of blended courses enabled language learners to engage in asynchronous out-of-classroom activities with peers and receive comments and guidance from teachers; meanwhile, thanks to the articulation of their viewpoints in online discussion, learners were linguistically more articulated in subsequent offline classroom interaction. However, in a study conducted by Bouilheres, Le, McDonald, Nkhoma, and Jandug-Montera (2020) who centred around students’ learning experiences at an Australian university, participants’ responses associated with the engagement with instructors were positive, but they considered the interaction with peers to be insufficient and inefficient. Plausible explanations for the discrepancy could be the lack of social connectivity among students, the design of teaching activities, or students’ “face threatening” (Liu & Jackson, 2008). Besides, some studies reveal that blended learning is effective in developing learner autonomy (Chen, 2022; Ma & Lee, 2019; Wang et al., 2019). Chen (2022) adopted a triangulation approach to survey 120 junior students enrolled in a blended translation course, and most participants reported higher levels of learning autonomy, motivation, and involvement. This echoes the findings of Wang et al. (2019) who explained that blended learning environments granted students more opportunities for self-oriented learning. Prior studies also highlight other merits of blended learning programmes, including an enhanced learning experience, a better understanding of knowledge, and increased engagement (Batista-Toledo & Gavilan, 2023; de Brito Lima, Lautert, & Gomes, 2021; Fisher, Perényi, & Birdthistle, 2021; Littenberg-Tobias & Reich, 2020; Wu & Luo, 2022).

In light of the literature reviewed, learners’ overall perception of blended learning experience is positive (Bouilheres, Le, McDonald, Nkhoma, & Jandug-Montera, 2020; de Moura, de Souza, & Viana, 2021; Owston, York, & Murtha, 2013; Taghizadeh & Hajhosseini, 2021; Wang et al., 2019; Wu & Luo, 2022). Nevertheless, several studies have underscored the challenges of blended learning encountered by learners, instructors, and educational institutions (e.g. Broadbent, 2017; Medina, 2018; Prasad, Maag, Redestowicz, & Hoe, 2018). In particular, Rasheed, Kamsin, and Abdullah (2020) presented a systematic review on the deficits of the online component in blended learning. One notable finding is that learners admitted their lack of self-regulation in the form of procrastination and poor time management, which resulted in inadequate preparation before on-site instruction and underuse of online resources. Another noteworthy challenge is that when students were confused about the learning content online, they tended to avoid seeking help from teachers (Broadbent, 2017). Thereby, teacher intervention should be in place to eliminate demerits of blended learning and ensure optimal learning effects for learners.

2.3. A blended learning model based on precision teaching

A few studies have examined the effectiveness of blended learning models that incorporate precision teaching. For example, Xing (2020) applied precision teaching in a blended advanced mathematics course to four classes as the experimental group, and another four classes were taught in a traditional instructional model as the control group. In the experimental classes, the teaching platform and intelligent teaching tools recorded students’ learning behaviour in real-time, providing data support for precise teaching implementation. With students’ performance data, teachers formulated precise teaching plans, adjusted teaching pace, and adopted teaching methods suitable for students’ levels and course content. Survey findings indicated that compared to control group, students in the experimental group were more gratified with precision teaching embedded in the blended learning context, as they reported that this mode could promote their self-regulated learning strategies, cooperative skills, learning efficiency, and teacher-student interaction. An intriguing finding is that participants’ online learning behaviour played a role in their learning achievement. However, Xing’s (2020) research is a small-scale study collecting responses from students over one semester in a specific discipline, so more empirical research is required to test the efficacy of blended courses featuring precision teaching in more instructional contexts. In a later study, Yin and Yuan (2021) integrated four basic steps of precision teaching (pinpoint, record, change, and try again) into a blended learning process, aiming to explore whether precision teaching in a blended teaching design contributed to college students’ better academic achievements. Results confirmed the positive relationship between precision teaching and learning outcomes in blended learning environments. Additionally, precision teaching helped to promote students’ self-efficacy and learning motivation. Yet, participants in Yin and Yuan’s (2021) study were mostly recruited from the same course, so the generalisability to more blended courses with precision teaching should be cautious. Similarly, Wu et al. (2022) implemented the big data-based precision teaching mode to 239 second-year undergraduate students in a programming course. The authors formulated the teaching goals by analysing students’ characteristics, collected students’ online learning performance by big data technology, and then determined the in-class teaching decisions. The questionnaire findings indicated that in contrast to the control group, students in the experimental group felt that blended teaching combined with precision teaching greatly improved their academic attainments, learning efficiency and autonomous learning ability.

As blended learning gains increasing popularity in higher education institutions (Wu & Luo, 2022), a great many studies have shed light on its effects in various disciplines and courses. However, only a small amount of research has focused on integrating precision teaching into the blended learning process at the tertiary level. Moreover, none of the previous studies have explored how this instructional design is applied in an EFL context, its impacts on EFL learners’ learning performance, or their perceptions of it. To address this gap in the literature, this study sets out to provide the construction and implementation of a blended learning model combined with precision teaching in an EFL course named Western Culture at a Chinese university. Although the relationship between online learning experience and learner satisfaction (Owston, York, & Murtha, 2013; Srivatanakul, 2022), interaction and satisfaction (de Moura, de Souza, & Viana, 2021; Wang, 2010), and teaching quality and satisfaction (Taghizadeh & Hajhosseini, 2021; Xing, 2020) have been investigated, it seems that few studies have explored the contribution of online learning experience, interaction, teaching quality and evaluation to learner satisfaction in an English blended course featuring precision teaching. Thus, this paper attempts to investigate EFL learners’ attitudes and feedback under this instructional model. Accordingly, the following research questions are formulated:

RQ1:

What are EFL learners’ perceptions of blended learning featuring precision teaching?

RQ2:

To what extent do online learning experience, interaction, teaching quality, and evaluation predict learner satisfaction towards blended learning integrated with precision teaching?

3. Method

3.1. Participants

This research was undertaken in the Autumn term of the 2022–2023 academic year at a first-tier university in China. The participants in this study were 80 Sophomores (21 males, 59 females) who enrolled in Western Culture, a two-credit optional College English course. To achieve the instructional goals within a semester, the video lectures was embedded in the curriculum to create a blended learning environment. The course contained 15 topics, such as architecture, sport, and wedding, and the organisation of each topic in the course textbook included two reading passages with reading comprehension, language in use, oral practice, and self-reflection. The participants were between the ages of 18 and 20 and were non-English majors from various disciplines, including social sciences, STEM fields (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths), and business. All the participants were Chinese who have learned English as their first foreign language for more than 10 years. Given the results of English placement tests administered at the start of the first-year semester, their English proficiency was intermediate based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The instructional goals of the Western Culture were to enhance students’ understanding of Western culture, facilitate a comparison between Chinese and Western cultures, and improve their comprehensive English language ability and intercultural communication competence. To meet these goals within a 16-week semester, a blended programme combined with precision teaching was designed. The university where this study was carried out attached great importance to curriculum reform and teaching innovation. For example, it has conducted various forms of training activities, guiding teachers to integrate modern information technology with teaching and providing institutional support for the blended courses.

3.2. Instructional design

Kubina and Yurich (2012) proposed four steps of precision teaching, namely Pinpoint (formulating teaching goals), Record (monitoring and documenting students’ learning performance), Change (adjusting the teaching decisions based on the recorded data) and Try Again (re-examining the effectiveness of the teaching approach). The instructional design of the current study adapted these steps into Pinpoint, Record, Change, and Evaluation (PRCE), as depicted in Figure 1. Before the implementation of PRCE, the teacher should analyse the students, the textbook, and the course to pinpoint precise teaching objectives, be aware of key teaching contents, and design proper classroom activities, which in turn were beneficial for improving teaching and promoting student learning (Çakıroğlu, 2019; Yu et al., 2023). As for the proportion of online learning and face-to-face learning in the course, around 75% of the instruction time is conducted through face-to-face learning in traditional classroom settings, while the remaining 25% is facilitated via the online learning platform.

Figure 1. The instructional design of Western culture

3.2.1. Pinpoint

Based on the comprehensive analysis of the students, the textbook, and the course, the teacher formulated threefold learning objectives for each unit of Western Culture: knowledge, skill, and emotional objectives. Overall, the knowledge objective of this course is to provides a concise introduction to western cultures; the skill objective is to promote cross-cultural communication; the emotional goal is to understand and appreciate cultural diversity. Fu and Tan (2017) claimed that precise teaching goals were the pillar of precision teaching, and thus an accurate description of the knowledge or skills that students need to acquire was necessary. In other words, each overall objective should be decomposed into smaller objectives that can be quantified. Accordingly, each category of learning objectives in Western Culture was further subdivided into second-tier objectives. For instance, one of the learning goals under the topic “Cuisine” was “to acquire some words and expressions about fast food”, which was converted into “to master 20 adjectives describing fast food and use them in the oral task within one class session”. As such, the accurate mastery and speed of using knowledge or skills were specified, which is consistent with the “fluency” measurement of precision teaching.

3.2.2. Record

One week ahead of in-person classes, students were required to complete the self-directed learning through an online platform called Xueyin (www.xueyinonline.com). This platform provided abundant learning resources, such as recorded lectures, an examination database, a discussion forum, and supplementary materials. Every unit was composed of three or four instructional videos, with each lasting between 8 and 12 minutes. The mini lectures served as the main instrument for transferring the knowledge about Western culture to enrolled students who could pause or rewind them as needed. Subsequently, students finished the corresponding quizzes from the examination database to check their understanding of the content. In addition, students were encouraged to share their thoughts and interact with peers and the teacher regarding the discussion topics on the forum. Throughout students’ online learning process, the platform automatically recorded their behavioural data, including login frequency, task completion, duration of learning hours, the number of discussion threads, quiz scores, and resource visits, all of which acted as an essential prerequisite for precision teaching.

3.2.3. Change

With students’ learning behaviour and performance data generated from the online platform, the teacher adjusted offline teaching accordingly. Based on the quizzes with high error rates, the teacher explicitly illuminated the core and difficult knowledge, ensuring that students grasped important cultural knowledge. Also, as students devoted to the virtual learning have received contextualised language input, the teacher was better positioned to organise pertinent classroom discussion in which students could potentially increase the quality and quantity of output. The comparison between Chinese and Western cultures enabled students to engage critically with the course content instead of being passively crammed in a pre-packaged form. Furthermore, as part of coursework and class assessment, students in Western Culture were required to deliver group oral presentations which were aimed at cultivating their communicative and collaborative abilities in academic settings. Incidentally, during the face-to-face sessions, the teacher applied the “Chaoxing” application, a smart teaching tool, to record student learning data in classroom, including engagement, attendance, in-class test results, and group discussion. These data provided insight into students’ offline learning behaviour, empowering the teacher to implement further interventions, such as giving appropriate feedback and personalised guidance.

3.2.4. Evaluation

The learning profile of each student was categorised into four parts: platform evaluation, teacher evaluation, peer evaluation, and self-evaluation. Through the e-learning platform, learning behaviour characteristics of each student could be reflected, allowing the teacher to tailor interventions to individual students. Moreover, in this blended course, both the teacher and student peers were involved in providing feedback. This meant that apart from the unidirectional feedback from the teacher, fellow classmates also intervened in the evaluation process. For example, when assessing students’ presentation performance in class, both the teacher and student peers awarded numerical grades and provided comments based on a criterion-referenced rubric. Finally, following every weekly class, students ticked the self-evaluation form featuring a series of learning goals to reflect on their progress, which was a process functioning as facilitator of self-regulated learning. To encourage students to participate in all aspects of blended learning and emphasise diversified and process-based assessment, students’ ultimate course grades consisted of both formative and summative assessments, each accounting for 50% of marks. Formative assessments, the in-process evaluation, included online learning results, in-class performance, and the group presentation, while the summative assessment was the end-of-course test. Figure 2 illustrates the percentage and allocation of marks for each assessment.

Figure 2. Assessment methods of Western culture

3.3. Instrument

The first section of the questionnaire collected participants’ demographic and personal information, including gender, age, major, self-described English proficiency and learning autonomy. Then, to investigate students’ perceptions of their learning experience in a blended course featuring precision teaching, a survey with five dimensions was designed with reference to the existing and well-validated instruments in the literature. Specifically, the questionnaire of this study included six items regarding online learning experience developed by Wang et al. (2019), six items concerning interaction developed by Bouilheres, Le, McDonald, Nkhoma, and Jandug-Montera (2020), five items with respect to teaching quality developed by Ginns and Ellis (2007), four items in relation to evaluation developed by Xing (2020), and seven items on overall learner satisfaction developed by Owston, York, and Murtha (2013). Some items were adapted from pre-existing instrument to situate blended learning with precision teaching. All the items were positively worded with a five-point Likert format, ranging from “strongly agree” (value 5) to “strongly disagree” (value 1). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the five scales in the current study were .908 (online experience), .858 (interaction), .873 (teaching quality), .836 (evaluation), .883 (overall satisfaction), implying high internal consistency. The overall Cronbach’s alpha value for the entire instrument was .944. Figure 3 shows the details of these five dimensions and their related items. All the items in the inventory were bilingual in English and Chinese to ensure participants’ full understanding of each survey question. Since the original items were all in English, to ensure the accuracy and fidelity of the translation process, back translation was completed by the author and a professor in linguistics. Subsequently, the translated version was revised in accordance with the comments from a bilingual foreign teacher before the formal questionnaire was administered.

Figure 3. Five dimensions of the questionnaire

3.4. Data collection and analysis

The questionnaire was administered to students in two classes taught by the same instructor at the end of the semester via an online survey server (http://www.sojump.com). The instructor is one of the members in the course teaching team who videotaped mini lectures, uploaded related resources, gave feedback in the online forum, and delivered face-to-face lectures. Informed consent was obtained from all participants who were well-informed of the purpose of the survey, their right to decline participation or withdraw at any time, as well as the confidentiality of handling data. Participants were also assured that their responses would not influence their course grades. With the data retrieved from the forced-choice online questionnaires, descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentages, and mean scores, and standard deviation, were calculated. Additionally, the average of each latent factor, including online experience, interaction, teaching quality, and evaluation, was used to conduct Pearson correlation and multiple regression via SPSS 26. The aim was to identify the contribution of these four independent variables to participants’ overall readiness for blended learning featuring precision teaching.

4. Results and discussion

Online learning experience

Questions 1, 7, 8, 13, 18, and 22 in Table 1 were centred on students’ online learning experience in the blended format. Overall, students viewed the online sessions positively owing to accessibility (86.3% Strongly Agree or Agree) and flexibility (73.7% Strongly Agree or Agree). This finding echoes that of Owston, York, and Murtha (2013) and Srivatanakul (2022) who reported that respondents favoured flexibility and accessibility afforded by hybrid learning modes. Furthermore, students in this study admitted the effectiveness of online sessions in preparing them for in-class sessions (between 62.5% and 75.1% Strongly Agree or Agree). This is in line with the finding of Wu and Luo (2022) who interviewed lecturers in a blended EFL course, and all the interviewees agreed that mini-lecture videos contributed to students’ deeper understanding of the course content and more insightful discussion in class.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for questions focusing on online learning experience.

Survey questions	Mean	S.D.	Likert scale response (%)
			(Strongly) Agree	Neutral	(Strongly) Disagree
Q1: Online sessions improve my understanding of key concepts.	3.59	.791	62.5	30	7.5
Q7: Understanding online materials helps me move the topics further in class.	3.68	.759	70	23.7	6.3
Q8: Recorded videos I watch in online platform prepare me for in-class learning.	3.78	.729	75.1	21.1	3.8
Q13: Online discussion makes me more active and better prepared in class.	3.63	.832	62.5	30	7.5
Q18: I can learn at my own pace in the online platform.	3.89	.842	73.7	22.5	3.8
Q22: The video lectures are easy to access.	4.10	.805	86.3	8.7	5.0

Interaction

Questions 2, 3, 9, 10, 14, and 19 gauged students’ interaction with their peers and the instructor. As shown in Table 2, nearly 70% of students reckoned that this blended course was interactive. However, compared to “learner-instructor interaction”, “learner-learner interaction” items (Questions 2, 3 and 19) had a relatively lower mean and percentage of agreement, indicating less frequent and lower quality interaction among students. This finding is supported by Xing (2020) who incorporated precision teaching in a blended mathematics course and found that interaction between learners and instructor was more frequent. Interestingly, Bouilheres, Le, McDonald, Nkhoma, and Jandug-Montera (2020) and Taghizadeh and Hajhosseini (2021) observed inadequate interaction between student peers but enhanced engagement with teachers in blended learning, albeit some other studies (e.g. de Moura, de Souza, & Viana, 2021; Wang, 2010) reported increased peer-interaction and student-teacher interaction.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for questions focusing on interaction.

Survey questions	Mean	S.D.	Likert scale response (%)
			(Strongly) Agree	Neutral	(Strongly) Disagree
Q2: In this course, I interact more with other students inside and outside of the classroom.	3.29	.750	38.7	47.5	13.8
Q3: In this course, the quality of my interaction with other students is better.	3.40	.686	43.7	48.8	7.5
Q9: In this course, I interact more with my teacher inside and outside of the classroom.	3.90	.668	77.5	20.0	2.5
Q10: In this course, the quality of my interaction with my teacher is better.	3.78	.616	70.1	28.6	1.3
Q14: This course is very interactive.	3.76	.698	68.8	27.5	3.7
Q19: I feel connected with other students.	3.34	.711	37.5	53.7	8.8

Teaching quality

Questions 4, 11, 15, 20, and 21 shown in Table 3 were intended to capture students’ perception of the teaching quality in this blended course based on precision teaching. Notably, 93.8% of students responded positively to question 20, “The face-to-face teaching helps me gain in-depth understanding about the course content”, implying that classroom teaching was effective in enhancing students’ comprehension of the course material. Also, a large majority of students were highly satisfied with the classroom teaching, reporting that it was well-integrated with online materials, effective to fulfil teaching objectives, and conducive to fostering critical thinking (between 80.1% and 86.3% Strongly Agree or Agree). Likewise, in Xing’s (2020) study, over 80% of participants noted a cohesive connection between online and classroom learning, which redounded to better face-to-face delivery. Students’ satisfaction with blended learning classrooms was also vindicated in Taghizadeh and Hajhosseini’s (2021) study in which students highlighted the instructor’s indispensable role in activating their background knowledge, motivating them to dig deeper into topics, and giving constructive feedback during class hours. However, only around 60% of students perceived classroom atmosphere to be active. This may be attributed to the lack of social connectivity between students in class, as confirmed by the limited peer-interaction in this study.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for questions focusing on teaching quality.

Survey questions	Mean	S.D.	Likert scale response (%)
			(Strongly) Agree	Neutral	(Strongly) Disagree
Q4: The face-to-face teaching is well-integrated with my online learning experience.	4.01	.539	86.3	13.7	–
Q11: Teaching goals are well achieved.	3.99	.646	86.3	10.0	3.7
Q15: We have a very active atmosphere in class.	3.68	.671	61.3	36.2	2.5
Q20: The face-to-face teaching helps me gain in-depth understanding about the course content.	4.08	.444	93.8	6.2	–
Q21: Class discussion helps to cultivate my critical thinking.	3.98	.656	80.1	18.6	1.3

Evaluation

Questions 5, 12, 23, and 24 focused on students’ views on the course evaluation mechanism. As the results presented in Table 4, students had a favourable view of the evaluation they received from both the online platform and the teacher. This positive attitude may be ascribed to the visualised learning data presented online, which prompted students to keep up with the learning tasks in due time. In a similar vein, Wu et al. (2022) found that online platforms that recorded students’ learning behaviour improved learner autonomy. Meanwhile, the good competence in using technological tools made the instructor sufficiently well-informed and provided students with targeted guidance and advice. Wang et al. (2019) argued that teachers should not be the sole speakers imparting knowledge intensively in class; instead, they were supposed to be the feedback providers and evaluators who supported students’ learning. Another interesting finding of this study is that peer evaluation and self-evaluation were comparatively less effective. This suggested that peer evaluation activities and self-evaluation forms in this course ought to be meticulously designed.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics for questions focusing on evaluation.

Survey questions	Mean	S.D.	Likert scale response (%)
			(Strongly) Agree	Neutral	(Strongly) Disagree
Q5: Self-evaluation makes me clear whether I have mastered the targeted knowledge or skills.	3.83	.612	68.8	28.7	2.5
Q12: I receive enough personalized guidance and targeted feedback from my teacher.	3.88	.582	78.7	20	1.3
Q23: My learning behavior recorded online pushes me to improve my learning autonomy.	3.89	.729	78.7	17.5	3.8
Q24: Peer evaluation helps me to identify the aspects that I need to improve.	3.73	.746	66.2	30	3.8

Overall satisfaction

In terms of learner satisfaction, as evidenced by the average scores listed in Table 5, the blended learning scenarios combined with precision teaching were well-received. More than 90% of students found this course satisfactory and enjoyable, and they were ready to recommend it to other students. This is congruent with extant studies that learners generally hold positive attitudes towards blended instruction (Batista-Toledo & Gavilan, 2023; Bouilheres, Le, McDonald, Nkhoma, & Jandug-Montera, 2020; Owston, York, & Murtha, 2013; Wu & Luo, 2022; Xing, 2020). In addition, around 82.5% of students in this study believed that their English ability had improved after taking the course. This finding mirrors the results of Wu et al. (2022); Xing (2020); and Yin and Yuan (2021) who concluded that blended pedagogy combined with precision teaching led to students’ improved academic achievement.

Table 5. Descriptive statistics for questions focusing on overall satisfaction.

Survey questions	Mean	S.D.	Likert scale response (%)
			(Strongly) Agree	Neutral	(Strongly) Disagree
Q6: Compared with conventional classroom learning, EFL blended learning is more effective.	3.93	.612	82.5	15.0	2.5
Q16: The variety of activities in blended learning is useful in developing my English language competence.	3.96	.561	82.5	17.5	–
Q17: I am satisfied with this course.	4.13	.603	90.1	8.6	1.3
Q25: I would like to recommend this course to other students.	4.16	.583	92.5	6.2	1.3
Q26: I have an enjoyable learning experience.	4.19	.597	90.0	10.0	–

Contribution of online learning, interaction, and teaching quality, and evaluation to satisfaction

To explore the contribution of online experience, interaction, teaching quality, and evaluation to learner satisfaction in this course, Pearson correlation analyses were firstly used to identify the independent variables significantly (p < .01) linked to overall satisfaction. As seen from Table 6, in addition to the significant correlations between the four indicators and learner satisfaction, there were also significant correlations among the factors. For instance, higher teaching quality was positively associated with the evaluation in the learning process (r = 0.723).

Table 6. Correlations between online experience, interaction, teaching quality, evaluation, and overall satisfaction.

	Online learning experience	Interaction	Teaching quality	Evaluation	Overall satisfaction
Online learning experience	1
Interaction	.438**	1
Teaching quality	.399**	.683**	1
Evaluation	.619**	.665**	.723**	1
Overall satisfaction	.449**	.656**	.774**	.714**	1

**p< .01 (all two-tailed tests).

Then, all the independent variables significantly correlated with learner satisfaction were included in multiple stepwise linear regression analyses to reveal the best predictors. The results showed a significant regression equation for overall satisfaction (F(2, 77) = 10.898, p < .0001, with a R² of 0.649, Adjusted R² = 0.640). As indicated in Table 7, the two strongest positive predictors for learner satisfaction were teaching quality and evaluation. This result is partially aligned with that of Taghizadeh and Hajhosseini (2021) who found that teaching quality had the greatest contribution to learner satisfaction, implying the critical role of teachers as knowledge transmitters, activities organisers, academic supporters, and evaluators of students in blended learning. Besides, evaluation, particularly teacher evaluation and platform evaluation, turned out to be a strong predictor of learner satisfaction, which echoed the findings of Wu et al. (2022) and Wang et al. (2019) that feedback from instructors and technological tools facilitated students’ learning.

Table 7. Results of multiple regression analyses.

Predicted variable	Predictor variables	R^2	Beta	t	p
Overall satisfaction	Teaching quality	.599	.541	5.533	.000
	Evaluation	.050	.323	3.301	.001

5. Conclusion

The present study investigated EFL learners’ perceptions of blended learning integrated with precision teaching in a Chinese university, with four steps in the instructional design: Pinpoint, Record, Change, and Evaluation (PRCE). The survey results revealed the following major findings: (1) Students provided positive feedback towards the combination of blended learning and precision teaching on account of the flexibility, accessibility, effectiveness of classroom teaching, targeted guidance, higher levels of learning autonomy, and increased student-teacher interaction. (2) However, students in this study considered the quantity and quality of learner-learner interaction unsatisfactory, being less connected with their classmates. (3) With regard to evaluation mechanism, students were content with the learner portraits derived from online personalised data and timely feedback from the teacher, but they regarded peer evaluation and self-evaluation as less effective. (4) The multiple regression analyses showed that contribution of teaching quality and evaluation to learner satisfaction was higher than that of online learning experience and interaction.

The findings of this study have some pedagogical implications for EFL teaching and learning under a blended learning paradigm with precision teaching. Firstly, the present study revealed the significance of teaching quality for learner satisfaction in blended learning environments based on precision teaching. Thus, it is imperative for instructors to be equipped with skills and strategies required in blended learning classrooms (Taghizadeh & Hajhosseini, 2021). For example, instructors should be aware of students’ attributes and abilities in accordance with their online learning behaviour, and then choose the appropriate teaching content and classroom activities. In other words, teachers ought to connect online learning with classroom learning, encouraging students to apply online input into offline output activities, which helps to seamlessly engage students in active learning. Secondly, this study suggests that it is crucial to strengthen learners’ sense of community characterised by peer-to-peer interaction, cooperative learning, and a positive classroom climate so that students do not feel isolated. To achieve this aim, collaborative activities in various forms can be organised to enhance interaction, solidarity, and cohesion among students (Wang et al., 2019). Thirdly, when constructing a blended learning model based on precision teaching, teachers should design a fair evaluation system that can comprehensively evaluate students’ performance throughout the course.

Limitations of this study are acknowledged. The first limitation is that the instrument used in this study primarily measured the influence of online learning experience, interaction, teaching quality, and evaluation on learner satisfaction under the blended and precision instruction, whereas other variables such as motivation, participants’ language proficiency, and self-efficacy equally deserve scholars’ attention. Another limitation is the exclusive focus on quantitative data, without the inclusion of qualitative items in the survey. Integrating qualitative data could have offered richer insights into students’ satisfaction with the course. Therefore, future studies could include qualitative feedback to offer a more comprehensive exploration of the research topic. Moreover, students reported their improvement in English proficiency after taking the course, but no assessment tool was incorporated in this study to see whether there was a mismatch between students’ perception and the tangible academic outcomes. Thus, it is recommended that further study with the adoption of an experimental research design can be conducted to compare the learning outcomes between blended learning featuring precision teaching and other teaching modes.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This study is supported by the Teaching Research Project of Hubei University [Project number: 2023062], and Hubei University Teaching Reformation Project as an Application of the RightOempower Approach to Education proposed by Professor Wenzhong Zhang of Nankai University, P. R. China.

Notes on contributors

Huashan Wu

Huashan Wu is a lecturer in the College English Department at the School of Foreign Languages, Hubei University. Her research interests include educational psychology, blended teaching and individual differences among learners.