Designing for Multiple Expressions: Questioning Permanence as a Sign of Quality in Textiles

Abstract

Developing alternative materials and methods of production and recycling is crucial to achieving more sustainable, circular textile practices. In addition to these, a shift in how textiles are perceived may well be needed. Textile practice has long sought to create textiles that, regardless of their material or post-production treatments do not subsequently change in expression, eliminating the fading of colors and wearing out of materials. Questioning this in order to evaluate quality, durability, and aesthetics may open up for greater circularity through extending product lifetimes, and allowing change to be embraced rather than delaying the signs of aging. This paper presents work that challenges the notion of permanence as a sign of quality in textiles by shifting the focus towards creating textiles that are capable of developing different visual expressions over time. By examining the natural changes in color of materials in plain and Jacquard-patterned woven textiles made of several materials, this paper explores the possibilities relating to designing textile patterns that can evolve in multiple different directions from one starting point. Textiles woven with a combination of different materials were used in various contexts, including outdoors, in order to explore how the materials reacted. The resulting color combinations varied depending on what conditions the material was exposed to, suggesting a more versatile view on the aesthetics of textiles. The results indicate that various colors, patterns, and structures can be achieved from one starting point, indicating that an alternative definition for quality, based on the aesthetics of change, may be viable. The natural aging of materials could be used in design processes to embed evolving patterns, colors, or structures in textiles, reconnecting textile products with the inherent, changeable qualities of materials.

Keywords:

• Textile design
• sustainability
• circularity
• lifespan
• evolving patterns
• material

Introduction

Quality in textiles

In relation to the search for sustainable alternatives in the field of textiles and fashion, there is a growing interest in circular design practices (Goldsworthy 2017: S1963; Moorhouse and Moorhouse 2017: S1949; Smith, Baille, and McHattie 2017: S1938–S1939). Finding alternative materials and methods for production and recycling is crucial to developing more circular textile practices. Initiatives that have explored biological processes such as growing building materials or textiles (Congdon 2014: 2–3; MycoWorks 2017; Ecovative 2018; TextileBio 2018) and natural dyeing methods (Worbin 2013: 4; Lundin 2014: 7), along with alternatives to cotton and polyester such as paper yarn, hemp, bio-plastics, and recycled polyester, have broadened the range of traditional materials and production and recycling processes.

Yet, in addition to these improvements, changes in how textiles are designed and appreciated may be necessary in order to open up a more holistic perspective on circularity. Here we note an opportunity to make a change in how textiles are designed in order to move from a current focus on delaying signs of aging to embracing them, thus supporting greater circularity through extending product lifetimes.

Textile practice has long sought to create textiles that, regardless of their material, are dyed during production and do not subsequently change in expression, eliminating the fading of colors and wearing out of materials. Here, the textile is seen as something static. However, and as with everything else in nature, textiles have a lifespan during which they undergo changes: they wear out and change as a result of use and time. When a textile starts showing signs of wear and tear—pilling, fading, or becoming misshapen—it often becomes less aesthetically pleasing and its value decreases. Specific types of textile product, such as aprons, sportswear and doormats, act as sacrificial layers that become stained. On other textiles and garments, however, stains are unwanted, marking the fabric and the wearer and recording the passage of time (Sorkin 2000: 77, 79).

When the durability of textiles is tested, this is performed with regard to retaining the appearance for as long as possible. Testing usually aims to ascertain how much use and exposure to the elements a textile can endure before its colors and materials begin to show signs of wearing out. Textiles, yarns, and fibers are tested according to various standards; the Martindale abrasion test, for example, measures the durability of fabrics against abrasion. Here, a fabric is abraded by circular movements for a fixed amount of time, after which changes in the textile are measured (Bilisik and Yolacan 2009: 1625). The less material the fabric loses during the test the higher its test score, and a new textile with an intact surface serves as the starting point for measurement, deviations from which are considered to constitute a decrease in quality. Testing methods are developed in order to improve their accuracy and repeatability and eliminate variation (Pegram 2000: 90), i.e. to produce standardized, homogeneous textiles that can be produced as exact copies of one another. This procedure is often called “quality control,” a term which hints at how quality in textiles is perceived.

The tests do not, however, take into consideration the form that the changes that occur in textiles take. A thin single-jersey t-shirt may lose its shape, while stiff leather becomes softer and acquires a better fit with use. Social norms also influence the ways in which the aging of different materials is experienced (Chapman 2005: 133); some, such as thick leather, improve, while others, such as acrylic, lose value with time and use.

Chapman (2005: 130) argues that design should challenge the norm of new, intact products, and proposes an approach to designing artifacts in which retailing is seen as the starting point of a product’s life. He further argues that textiles and apparel that are designed to improve with age could create emotional value and encourage people to look after them for longer. This in turn would set several requirements for materials, and how they behave as they age. Consider a pair of jeans: through extensive use, the wearer molds them as their own, creating an individual pattern, and so wear and tear is something that adds to the product’s value and narrative (Chapman 2005: 116; Townsend 2011: 93, 98, 105). In denim, this quality has proven so popular that designers have added various treatments to the fabric to achieve similar effects during production (Townsend 2011: 92–93, 105). Discussing quality in terms of how objects age could open up for broader interpretations of what constitutes a finished textile or product, and question when the lifespan of an object has come to an end (Chapman 2012).

Wear and tear

Using wear and tear as a design expression is not new in the field of textiles and fashion. The most typical example of the wear-and tear-aesthetic is perhaps jeans. Even Japanese wabi-sabi, kintsugi, and boro boro, however, which originated out of necessity, praise the imperfection of things and the value of taking care of and repairing them. Chalayan explores the wear and tear of materials in his collections “The Tangent Flows” and “Cartesia,” accelerating the aging process of garments by covering them with iron filings and burying them for several weeks (Golbin 2011: 29–33). The resulting garments have a rich texture and pattern, combining rusty tones and decomposed areas. The research presented in this paper used a similar method, with time and relatively extreme outdoor conditions creating changes in the expressions of textiles. Margiela (Luna 2009: 155), Worbin (2013: 4), Landin et al. (2008: 139), Storey, Ryan, and Belford (UAL Research Online 2016), and many others have explored different aspects of degradation, wear and tear, and time in their work.

How different materials age, wear out, and respond differently to treatments, all is influencing the ways in which textiles change. In the experiments presented in this paper, wear and tear is approached as a method of exploring the design of multiple expressions from one starting point. This was undertaken using the materials’ inherent qualities, in combination with textile structures and exposure of the textiles to a range of stimuli. There is great potential in this way of thinking about textile materials; considering them to be objects that can change and be further formed by time or use.

Instead of trying to delay the inevitable signs of wear and tear in textiles, these could be consciously included in the design process, shifting the focus away from the static textile and onto creating evolving textile expressions. This suggests incorporating at least some consideration of time, use, and maintenance in the design process, in relation to how these might influence the textile’s appearance. Considering these aspects at the stage at which choices are made regarding the materials and construction of a textile, opens up opportunities for the creation of textiles with the inherent capability to change their expression over various time spans, and might enable better matching the material’s lifespan with that of the textile product (Talman 2015: 351). Although this approach makes wear and tear part of the textile’s expression, change is mainly addressed from an aesthetic perspective, and does not cover all other aspects of a textile’s full lifecycle, or lifecycles.

Designing changeable textile expressions

Textiles can undergo changes in various ways: they can be visual (e.g. changes in color), tactile (e.g. changes in texture), or both, and can be reversible or irreversible. Both color-changing and light-emitting textiles have the ability to go back and forth between different states (see Figure 1) (Berzowska 2005: 69–72; Worbin 2010: 37–42; Jansen 2015: 27; Kooroshnia 2015: 17–19; Taylor & Robertson 2016). Other textiles, however, exhibit more irreversible changes in color or construction in reaction to various stimuli, such as light, heat, touch, or information (see Figure 1) (Worbin 2010: 37–42, 2013: 4; Dumitrescu 2013: 5; Persson 2013: 5; Landin 2009: 147–164). In the case of irreversible changes, unlike with reversible ones, the expression does not return to its starting point, but builds up with time and use (Worbin 2010: 49).

Figure 1 Irreversible and reversible changes in textiles. (a and b) Hanna Landin’s, Anna Persson’s and Linda Worbin’s work “the Burning Tablecloth”, a tablecloth that reacts to incoming phone calls by burn marks, explores a non-chemical burnout technique as an alternative way of presenting information (photos: Linda Worbin). (c) Marjan Kooroshnia’s work explores the design properties of heat reactive, color changing thermochromic inks to create dynamic surface patterns in textiles (photo: Jan Berg and Marjan Kooroshnia).

In line with the work of Hallnäs and Redström (2002: 113), “expression” is used in this paper as a fundamental notion that refers to the ways in which texture, color, structure, shape, etc. create an overall impression. The changes in expression described in this paper are the result of various changes; in some cases what is discussed is a change in the pattern of the textile, in others it is a change in the color of a pattern wherein the pattern itself can be said to be unchanged. It should also be noted that what we refer to as a textile’s “aesthetics” do not necessarily change when the expression changes, although in some instances this is the case. This relates to the fact that “aesthetics” is a relatively broad term that differentiates between various textile styles and genres. “Expression” has therefore been chosen as a notion that refers to the sum of all of the aspects of a textile. When compared to ‘appearance’ or ‘aesthetics’, ‘expression’ does not relate to surroundings, contexts, viewers, etc.; the expression is what it is, regardless of the circumstances, and is dependent solely on the inherent qualities of the textile itself.

Regardless of whether or not a project’s focus is on textiles that change between one or several states, a textile’s expression usually changes in a linear manner: one or several steps unfold from one starting point and the changes always occur in the same order. Relatively little research has been conducted regarding expressions that can develop in multiple directions from one starting point. However, Worbin (2013: 4) has explored evolving textile expressions through colors that change over time, in opposition to the traditional preconception of color as something permanent. By plant-dyeing fabrics without mordant, she explores and documents colors that gradually and irreversibly change over time (2013: 4), opening up for textiles aging in several ways depending on where they are placed.

Several other designers and scholars have used either materials that are capable of changing or changes that take place in materials over time as a method of creating evolving expressions. Whiting, in collaboration with Puma, developed a white sneaker with an emerging pattern that becomes visible as the shoe becomes dirty, exploring an “evolving narrative experience” (Chapman 2012). Wood has worked with the concept of an emerging pattern with Stain; cups with a pattern of glazed and non-glazed areas that, through use, change in color, showing the user’s individual coffee- or tea-drinking habits (University of Brighton 2013). Dixon works with the same theme albeit from a more everyday, commercial perspective with the Eco Ware tableware, which is made out of biodegradable plastic. As the dishes are used their material wears out, gradually changing from shiny to dull until they can eventually be composted (Fairs 2009: 61). These examples set evolving patterns in the context of an object’s lifespan, considering the form, choice of material, and type of change in relation to the intended – or probable – use.

Fletcher (2014: 192–193, 201–202) and Goldsworthy (2017: S1961–S1963) propose that garments could have lifespans ranging from long to short depending on their purpose, challenging the notion of garments as something permanent. Creating these lifespans would mean matching the material of the garment to its intended use. Short-lived, trend-sensitive garments could be made of recyclable materials, while those that are to be used for a long time would improve with age (Fletcher 2014: 206–214; Goldsworthy 2017: S1961–S1963). Considering a textile’s expression to be something that evolves throughout its lifespan would, as Chapman (2005: 133–134) suggests, make the purchase of a new textile only the first step in its life. This could encourage a more personal relationship with textiles and garments, preventing early disposal (Chapman 2005: 116; Niinimäki 2011: 84). Whiting’s sneakers, Wood’s cups, and Dixon’s Eco Ware all turn wear and tear into something that customizes and improves a product, instead of it losing value.

Rather than designing static expressions, different lifespans could be embedded in textiles through choice of material and construction, enabling the designer to tailor lifespans to both the object and textile it is made of (Talman 2015: 351). Considering how a textile’s expression can evolve during the design process opens up the possibility of achieving many expressions from one starting point, challenging how aging and use are valued.

Experiments

Experiments involving different treatments were performed in order to achieve visual changes in textiles and divided into two groups: creating textile patterns through degradation (burial underground and immersion in salt water) and creating textile patterns through use (prototypes used in different contexts). The first named aimed to dye patterns through degradation and the latter to add color and/or patterns to textiles through use. The aim of all of the experiments was to explore the possibilities of creating variation in different textiles. Table 1 shows an overview of the experiments with the left hand column indicating the material (marked from A to K), and top column indicating the treatment of the material (numbered from 1 to 14). Several of the experiments combine multiple materials in one treatment, and so will be referred to with several letters. An apron (treatment number 5) combining two materials (B – plain satin in thin paper yarn and cotton, and J – triangle pattern combining paper, polyester, wool, copper and cotton) will be referred to in the text as B5–J5.

Table 1 An overview of the experiments with the left hand column indicating the type of weave pattern and materials used (marked from A to K), and top column indicating the treatment of the material (numbered from 1 to 14). Several of the experiments combine multiple materials in one treatment, and are referred to with one number, and several letters (e.g. an apron (5) combining plain satin in thin paper and cotton (B), and triangle patterned fabric (J) is referred to as B5–J5).

	Treatments
Textile material	1: burying	2: immersing in salt-water	3: water with iron powder	4: bag	5: apron	6: conference chair	7: foyer chair	8: lab coat 1	9: lab coat 2	10: lab coat 3	11: lab coat 4	12: wash test yellow	13: wash test blue	14: wash test black
A: plain satin - copper, cotton	A1	A2
B: plain satin - paper thin, cotton	B1	B2			B5						B11
C: plain satin - paper thick, cotton	C1	C2								C10
D: plain satin - linen, cotton	D1	D2
E: plain satin - wool, cotton	E1	E2
F: circle pattern - paper, linen, cotton	F1	F2				F6						F12		F14
G: circle pattern - paper, polyester, cotton	G1	G2				G6							G13	G14
H: circle pattern - paper, wool, cotton	H1	H2				H6						H12		H14
I: circle pattern - polyester, wool, cotton	I1	I2				I6							I13	I14
J: triangle pattern - paper, polyester, wool, copper, cotton	J1	J2		J4	J5			J8	J9
K: triangle pattern - paper, polyester, wool, cotton			K3				K7					K12	K13	K14

The design of textile samples

To compare how different materials change, two cellulose-based (paper and linen) yarns, one protein-based (wool) yarn, and one synthetic (polyester) yarn were investigated. Wool is a material that generally dyes well, and paper yarn is more easily colored than cotton. Uncoated copper wire was also added to some of the samples due to its strong reactivity to air and moisture. All of the samples were woven using a Jacquard loom, with cotton as the warp. In order to place the focus on the different expressions that can be achieved using changes in materials, only white yarns were used.

A series of five plain fabrics (A–E) and two Jacquard-patterned fabrics in different material combinations (F–K) were woven using these materials (see Table 1). A weft-dominated satin binding was used for the plain samples to create a smooth, plain surface that acted as a white canvas for the colors and patterns created by the environment. Basic geometrical elements (triangles and circles) were chosen as the elements of the Jacquard patterns, and combined several materials in order to highlight how each material changed. The circle-patterned Samples F-I (Figure 3) consisted of two elements with textured surfaces—a circle and its background—each of which combined two materials. The material combinations used to create the samples featuring the circle pattern included paper and linen (F), paper and polyester (G), paper and wool (H), and polyester and wool (I). The triangle-pattern Samples J–K (Figures 4, 5) combined paper, wool, polyester in a double-faced weft-dominant satin, with each material forming one element of the pattern with an additional weft of either copper (J) or cotton (K).

Creating textile patterns through degradation

The first experiment explored colors and pattern variation based on how different materials degrade in nature. To this end, woven textiles were either buried underground or immersed in salt water for 2 months. These two relatively extreme outdoor environments were chosen over more common contexts for outdoor textiles so as to highlight the differences between materials.

Samples A1–J1 (Table 1), which measured 30 × 30 cm, were buried in approximately 20 cm of moist soil near the Baltic Sea. A similar group of samples (A2–J2; Table 1) was immersed in the brackish water of the Baltic Sea, such that they touched the bottom at a depth of roughly 160 cm. In addition, three samples of the triangle-patterned Sample K3 were placed in a bucket filled with water and iron powder for 1, 2 and 3 days, respectively. Dyeing with oxidized iron is a well-known technique that requires no additional pigments or fixing of the color, and so was explored to ascertain how the pattern was transformed when parts of it absorbed color differently.

After 2 months underground and in salt water, the samples were recovered for analysis. All had changed in appearance, with the materials reacting differently to the conditions. The buried samples generally had stronger, muted, and more even colors, whereas the salt–water samples had uneven, lighter colors (Figures 2–4). All of the samples were washed in fresh water without detergent and left to dry. The colors of all of the samples changed after this—the colors of the patterned samples in particular became stronger making the pattern stand out more clearly, likely due to the fact that the samples came into contact with air. Wool in particular took on a green shade.

Figure 2 Various changes in expression. (a, b, and c) prototypes before and after use. (d, e, f, and g) plain samples after 2 months underwater and buried underground. (h) different color schemes placed in opposition to each other in the triangle pattern after two different treatments.

Figure 3 The differing expressions of the same section of the buried circle pattern. Before (a), after two months underwater, unwashed (b), and washed (c). Before (d), after two months underground, unwashed (e), and washed (f). The paper yarn in the buried sample was dyed brown, while the underwater sample was not.

Creating textile patterns through use

The second experimental series explored colors and pattern variation in relation to how different materials wear and become discolored and dirty through use. Five categories of everyday uses of textiles were chosen, and a total of eight prototypes were made using the same fabrics as in the first experiment. The results of the first experiment suggested that patterned fabrics in particular undergo more versatile changes in expression. As a result, primarily triangle- and circle-patterned fabrics were used for the prototypes, which were subjected to everyday use for approximately 2 months.

The prototypes included textiles for use in both domestic and public spaces: a fabric bag (J4), an apron combining two materials (B5–J5), two chairs for public spaces—a foyer (K7) and a small conference room (F6–I6)—and pocket details on four working coats for use in a printing lab (J8, J9, C10, and B11; Table 1, Figure 2). These applications were chosen in order to cover a broad range of possible contexts in which people and textiles interact, in terms of both variety and type of wear. A bag comes into contact with clothes and/or the body, while an apron works as a towel and protective layer when cooking or cleaning. Chairs in public locations come into contact with different kinds of clothing, as well as some staining. Lab coats used in printing labs, which have pockets on the front, act as towels and a protective layer between clothing and pigments and other chemicals used in hand printing.

In addition, three washing tests were conducted wherein white triangle- and circle-patterned fabrics were washed with yellow (F12–K12), blue (G13–K13) and black (F14–K14) garments to ascertain how the different parts of the patterns absorbed color. This was undertaken in relation to the fact that colors bleed during washing, and that this is a well-known but frequently undesirable way of dyeing textiles. Garments and textiles made of multiple materials, including cotton, viscose, silk and wool, were used in the washing tests in order to include several types of loose pigment.

Results

Following the period of use and/or exposure to an outdoor environment, all of the textiles evinced some form of wear and tear. They were colored, stained and in some cases even degraded. Each had been dyed differently based on the environment in and use to which they had been placed. The colors of the samples may well continue to change, strengthen or fade with time.

The changes in the buried and immersed samples

Samples A1–J1, A2–J2, and K3 (Table 1) changed from white to colored, and the patterned Samples F1–J1, F2–J2 and K3 developed multi-colored schemes based on their material combinations and the type of exposure (Figures 2–5). The surfaces of the circle-patterned samples became multi-colored, and the triangle-patterned samples developed various color schemes depending on the aging method. The patterned samples were dyed quite evenly, likely due to the relatively small elements of the patterns, while the plain samples acquired more random splashes of color. The main factors that influenced the resulting changes in expression were the choice of material, how the materials were combined and the conditions that the fabrics were exposed to.

Figure 4 The differing expressions of the same section of the triangle pattern. Before (a), after two months underwater, unwashed (b), and washed (c). Before (d), after two months underground, unwashed (e), and washed (f).

Figure 5 The differing expressions of the triangle pattern. The raw fabric (a); after 2 months underwater (b), 2 months underground (c), 2 days in water with oxidized iron powder (d), 4 weeks in use as a bag (e), and having been washed with yellow (f), blue (g), and black laundry (h), respectively.

As was expected, wool and paper yarn exhibited the most pronounced changes in color. More unexpected, however, was that some treatments, such as immersion in water with iron powder (K3) resulted in wool being most strongly colored, while others, such as the black laundry test (F14–K14) and burial underground (A1–J1, but not immersion in salt water), resulted in paper obtaining the strongest color (Figures 2–5). Although this may be related to the chemical compositions of the textiles and the substances that they came into contact with, just as with regular dyeing methods, the results of these experiments were relatively difficult to predict. This may open up the possibility of designing patterns or surfaces in which different parts of the pattern are highlighted or relegated to the background depending on what the textile is exposed to, creating not only new color combinations but multiple different patterns. The circle pattern is an example of this, in that the elements of the pattern were either highlighted or hidden when the paper yarn in one sample (but not the other) had been dyed brown (Figure 3).

The buried paper samples degraded considerably faster than the linen ones, for example. Burial also seemed to generally cause degradation to occur more rapidly than being submerged in salt water. The durability of various materials could be further explored with a view to creating textiles that gradually reveal new expressions, in the form of textures, colors or materials, as parts are worn out or degraded. The specific ability of paper to react in a unique manner to various stimuli could open up for further research regarding the design of textiles with expressions which develop in distinct directions depending on their handling.

The triangle-patterned samples developed different color schemes based on the treatment (Figures 2, 4, 5). The samples that were submerged were colored green, yellow, or black, dependent on the composition of the material and whether mud from the sea had covered some or all of the sample. The integrated copper wire formed black lines in the fabric. The buried triangle-patterned samples acquired more even shades of green and brown, and here the copper wire created a pattern of circular shapes. The triangle-patterned samples that were placed in water containing iron powder developed a color scheme featuring various shades of reddish brown, with wool having the strongest color.

The changes in the samples in use

After 8 weeks of use, most of the prototypes had undergone some form of change in expression. The bag and the washed samples underwent the most pronounced changes.

Washing with laundry in different colors produced yellow, blue and bluish-gray patterns (Figure 5). Black garments produced the strongest color, which was a shade of bluish gray. In the machine wash with black laundry paper took on the darkest shade, while cotton warp and wool were dyed lighter shades and polyester was not dyed at all, and so this created the greatest contrast in terms of the pattern. In the yellow laundry wool and paper were dyed quite evenly, making the white polyester parts of the pattern stand out clearly. The blue laundry did not result in strong color changes; rather, the fabric took on a more neutral, white hue. The effect was reminiscent of the whiteners containing blue pigments that are sold to decrease yellowness in older white textiles.

These experiments explored the variation in patterns that can be achieved by making use of the varying ability to absorb dyeing substances of different materials in a woven pattern and different methods of dyeing materials. The results, however, suggest an alternative way of approaching the generally unintended transfer of pigments between textiles. When one does laundry, the transfer of loose pigments from one textile to another is usually avoided on the basis that it is undesirable. However, this has the potential to create new color combinations, alter the expression of existing textiles and even update textiles with stains or marks of wear and tear.

The bag underwent relatively localized changes in color: dark areas appeared where it had rubbed against clothing and at the corners, enhancing the tactile and visual elements of the pattern (Figure 2). The paper yarn and wool absorbed more color, while the polyester remained relatively white. The handles acquired a grayish tone. Some marks did not follow the logic of the pattern due to the use of the bag in practice (e.g. its being folded or put on the ground). Over a longer period of use and possibly after washing, such marks could add to the complexity of the pattern. These could perhaps be used as a way of creating more individual patterns, and so go beyond the design of the original piece.

The chairs and the apron showed similar evidence of use focused on the areas of greatest wear, although the changes were subtler. The pigments used in the lab influenced the changes in the color and pattern of the pocket details of the lab coats. The changes in the expressions of the prototypes were, however, relatively preliminary, constituting just one stage in the lifespan of a textile. These would generally evolve gradually over a long period of time, and so the prototypes will be used further in their environments in order to ascertain the changes in expression that take place over a greater timeframe.

Aging and change as a part of a textile’s lifespan

Considered from the perspective of traditional quality standards, which aim to produce standardized, predictable textiles, the samples would likely be deemed to have degraded in quality. From the perspective of aesthetics, however, the textiles could be said to have acquired alternative expressions, e.g. changing from a white pattern or fabric to one that is colored. Either of these expressions could have been designed from the beginning by weaving a colored pattern, dyeing the fabric or performing other post-production treatments. In these experiments, however, all of the expressions were achieved from one starting point and by exposing the textiles to various stimuli (Figure 5).

The results of the experiments indicate that various colors, patterns, and structures can be achieved from one starting point. The resulting color combinations, visible on the same patterns, varied depending on the treatment that the materials had been exposed to. This suggests that the natural aging and changing of materials could be consciously used in design processes to embed evolving patterns, colors, or structures into textiles. This could open up for the design of textiles that do not have one expression throughout their lifespan, but can develop several depending on what they are exposed to. This in turn challenges the notion of permanence as a sign of quality in textiles, and what is considered to be the lifespan of a textile.

This suggests a shift in how quality in textiles is defined; from the intention of producing identical, standardized textiles that do not change to embracing how they wear out and evolve over time. New methods of evaluating quality based on the aesthetics of change, rather than measuring visual or mechanical changes such as fading or pilling, are, however, needed. Defining these methods is not, unfortunately, straightforward, as they would build on the textile during various stages of its lifespan rather than be possible to measure precisely at any given point in time. A shift in attitude is also necessary in terms of accepting textiles as objects that undergo changes rather than continuing to view them as static. This is related to expectations of what is being purchased and what happens when a white textile becomes colored, and is a subject for further research.

Discussion

Both the outdoor- and wash-dyed examples explored changing the appearance of a pattern using a material’s inherent properties, but in different ways. In the outdoor-dyed samples, shades from green to brown emerged depending on the material and placement of the sample, resulting in multi-colored patterns. The outdoor environments seemed to enhance the tendencies of materials to change color in a certain way; wool, for example, consistently turned green, and paper yarn brown. Leftover pigments in a washing machine were absorbed by some materials and repelled by others. The samples were exposed to a random mixture of substances, each of which affected the various fibers differently; man-made pigments, on the other hand, are intended to dye a specific type of fiber a specific shade.

The patterned samples were more successful in that they, through the combination of several different types of fibers, evinced more variety in the resulting color schemes. Using different treatments and paper, wool, and polyester in different parts of the triangular pattern resulted in seven different color combinations from the same, white-on-white pattern. This opens up the possibility of more color combinations emerging over time than in single-colored fabrics, in which the single weft material also determines the main color of the fabric.

The circle pattern also changed from white to multi-colored, but its color palette was more limited due to the blending of the materials on a small-scale surface. The textured surfaces of the pattern elements were, surprisingly, more interesting than the overall pattern, showing subtle gradations in color. This could be further explored through the use of different textures on various materials and scales, which may relate to the color of the fabric rather than enhancing an existing pattern, and so draw attention to individual patterns of use.

Furthermore, the plain satin fabrics might be better utilized as markers for use: Blank canvases used in contexts in which the textile is worn through repeated handling or placement in specific positions. The changes in expression that occurred through use were subtler and largely took the form of localized changes in hue, but were closer to the type of stimuli a textile encounters in everyday life, than burying or immersing in salt water for longer periods of times. With regard to colors and patterns in textiles being influenced by how various materials gather dirt in use, for example, the resulting expression bears a closer connection to the use of the textile or object when the areas that are handled most frequently change more, creating individual marks and patterns of use (cf. Sorkin 2000: 77).

Different treatments dyed different areas of the triangle pattern; some triangles became lighter and some darker, and this varied based on the treatment. In the laundry-washed samples, for example, the paper yarn gained the strongest color; in the samples that were soaked in water containing iron powder, the wool was most strongly dyed (Figure 2). When applied to a pattern with greater differences between its elements in terms of size and proportion, this technique could result in various patterns from one starting point, depending on how the material is dyed. If multiple treatments are applied to the same piece of fabric, further color combinations could be created.

This approach could also be used in the design of colored textures or patterns. A yellow textile would turn greenish or brownish depending on whether it was made of wool or paper. A patterned, even, single-colored yellow textile might develop a multi-colored pattern in various shades between yellow, green, and brown, depending on the materials used in the different parts of the pattern.

Designing for multiple expressions

The basic knowledge regarding how different materials change under different circumstances that was gathered during the experiments could be used in a broader design perspective. The broad range of colors in the Jacquard patterns, which was obtained without the use of dyes, suggests that patterns could be designed and colored using only the inherent qualities of different materials and how they react to different stimuli. Further research would, however, be needed regarding the colors that can be created using different materials, what they react to, and if multiple colors could be achieved using one material and different treatments.

Changes in color were explored in these experiments, but changes in the construction of the textile are another possible track for further research. The speed and way in which different materials wear out or degrade could be used to create surface expressions and textures wherein colors, materials, and/or constructions are revealed as parts of the textile degrade, wear out, shrink, or melt. Paper, which degrades relatively fast, could be combined with more durable materials such as cotton, wool, polyester, or metal, for example. A combination of paper, cotton, and polyester might result in a textile with several different time spans embedded in it, and so the materials would degrade at different rates based on usage. Biodegradation could even be used as a means of material separation in fabrics that combine several materials.

Altering or removing parts of a textile’s construction through the enacting of changes in its materials could be used to create new functions in textiles. Shrinking, forming, or dividing could be used to change textile qualities such as texture, size, volume, number, thickness, and opacity, altering the way in which the textile can be used. Dynamic materials such as melting, shrinking, and evaporating yarns responding to heat and water could be used. Combining materials that react to different stimuli in one fabric could open up for the design of textiles that have a function and expression that can be formed in multiple ways depending on the treatment. Using everyday stimuli such as water, washing, ironing, or steaming to trigger changes in textiles would also make the forming of the textiles more accessible and controlled, facilitating the planning of the various steps and variations.

The experiments presented in this paper are initial explorations of creating variation in textile patterns using different treatments. The chosen methods, which involved various forms of degradation and wear of textiles, indicate how different materials react to different conditions. They also hint at how the approach presented here might be used to create pattern variation through changes in color and wear and tear. However, while the prototypes were made for use, this was undertaken specifically to explore the possibilities presented by the patterns as relates to the variation of patterns, and the alternative uses of evolving patterns are a topic to be investigated by further research.

An alternative approach to quality in textiles

Designing textile lifespans can be seen as designing a starting point from which the textile evolves based on various influences. The woven fabrics used in these experiments are one example of a starting point, which was developed in different directions depending on what the textile was exposed to (burial underground, immersion in seawater), for how long, and the context of use. If some of these parameters – period of exposure, placement, and handling – were to be changed, the resulting expression would be different. Regardless of the textile’s lifespan, using change as a design variable requires good knowledge of materials on the part of the designer, together with an ability to foresee how the materials will evolve over time and in relation to one another.

Precisely directing the ways in which textiles will, or should, change can be difficult due to the fact that exactly what conditions they will be subjected to is not known or controlled by the designer. On the other hand, the way in which a textile is designed suggests certain uses or interactions. Whether a textile is woven, knitted, stiff, or flexible, what material it is made of, and if the changes in its expression are triggered instantly through user interaction or more gradually over time all suggest different areas of application. In the case of Dixon’s Eco Ware, the size, cupped form, and hard, water-resistant, washable material of the objects suggest that they be used as dishes.

The experiments presented in this paper are an initial exploration of designing textiles whose expression can develop in several different directions from one starting point through various influences. Several variations of the same pattern were created through degradation and washing. The results on adding color and pattern to textiles through use were rather preliminary due to the short period of time for the experiment. A prolonged period of use is needed to assess their extent properly. The main finding of the experiments is, that it is possible to achieve various colors, patterns, and structures from one starting point, indicating that an alternative definition for quality, based on the aesthetics of change, may be viable. The experiments propose ways in which textiles could evolve, quickly or gradually, and shift the focus away from single, static expressions and towards designing textile lifespans. Through choosing materials that age in various ways and combining these with patterns or surface textures, evolving patterns or colors can be added to textiles, questioning the ideal of static aesthetics.

Thinking of materials in terms of how they change over time and what they react to could open up for designing textile lifespans that are better tailored to different uses, suggesting a more holistic approach to textile design that goes beyond the design of single, static expressions. Taking change as one quality of a textile could even encourage the development of sustainable alternatives, such as circular design practices, in the field of textiles, matching a material’s lifespan with the product’s or encouraging a sense of emotional attachment, and in so doing open up for alternative perspectives on what sustainable textiles can be. Further research should, however, be performed regarding the ways in which these can be created through a combination of material, construction, and handling.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Riikka Talman

Riikka Talman is a PhD-Student at the Smart Textiles Design Lab at the Swedish School of Textiles at the University of Borås, Sweden. Her research explores how inherent changeable qualities could be embedded into textiles to create materials that change or evolve over different timespans, enabling the designer to tailor a more appropriate lifespan for both textiles and the artifacts made out of them. She’s been working with how different materials can be combined with textile structures to create expressions that change over time or in use, challenging the notion of permanence as a sign of quality in textiles. [email protected]