The Greek ‘discovery’ of Syria: the 1860 civil war in Lebanon and Damascus and Greek public opinion

ABSTRACT

The civil war in Mount Lebanon and the massacres of Christians in Damascus and other cities in 1860 ushered in a new era to the Levant region, leading to the establishment of the Mount Lebanon Mutassarifate and strengthening the move towards confessionalism in public life. This paper, based on unpublished documents from the Archives of the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as well as articles in the Greek press and literary reviews, aims to explore the image of the various ethnic, linguistic and religious groups of Syria in the Kingdom of Greece during the 1840s–1860s. The presence of Greek merchants in the region and above all the strong ecclesiastical ties of the local Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch with the Constantinople Patriarchate add broader perspectives to the Greek ‘discovery’ of Syria. The character and ‘mission’ of the Greek Orthodox Church in the region was analysed by the Greek consuls in Beirut, who also formulated or advanced blueprints for the aims of Greek ‘cultural diplomacy’ in Syria. The different shades of opinion were highlighted during the first Greek ‘humanitarian intervention’, in the summer and autumn of 1860, when Greek war vessels sailed to Beirut to assist the needy and transport some local Christian refugees to Greece. For the government in Athens, this mission was a question of prestige. For Greek journalists and writers, it had much broader implications since it reinforced a feeling of cultural affinity between Greeks of the nation-state and the Christians of Syria.

KEYWORDS:

• Greek Orthodox
• Greece
• Lebanon civil war
• nationalism
• humanitarian intervention

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Istoriko kai Diplomatiko Arheio Ipourgeiou Eksoterikon Ellados [Historical and Diplomatic Archives of the Greek Ministry for Foreign Affairs=IAYE], folder Α.Α.Κ.-G./1860, Archdeacon Parthenius and Ioannis Papadopoulos to the [Greek Orthodox] Patriarch of Antioch. Unless otherwise stated all the translations are mine. Many letters written by Greeks or Greek speaking inhabitants of Beirut and Damascus were published in Greek newspapers see e.g. Aion, 30 July 1860.

2 For further efforts to establish collaboration between emir Bashir and the Greek government, during the era of President Ioannis Kapodistrias (1828–1831) see Loukatos (1970–1971, 374–379).

3 IAYE, folder 36.6/1834, Exequatur of the Consul at Beirut Nikolaos Theseas, 10/22 August 1834.

4 See the relevant documents in IAYE, folder 36.14/1835.

5 IAYE, folder 36.6/1835, Greek Consulate in Beirut (Nikolaos Theseas), nr. 3, 3 July 1835 (old calendar), to the General Consul of Greece in Egypt Michail Tositzas.

6 IAYE, folder 36.6/1834, Secretary of Foreign Affairs (Iakovos Rizos), 10/22 August 1834, to the King.

7 For the formation of the Greek consular service in the Balkans during that era see Michaelides (2012).

8 IAYE, folder 78.1./1843, Greek Consulate at Beirut (Hadzistephanou Dimitriou), nr. 28, 16/28 April 1843 to the Secretary for Foreign Affairs.

9 The Greco-Catholics (Melkites) were formally recognised as a millet in 1848, but already in 1841 several orders from the Porte referred to them a a separate millet.

10 For the national and religious groups in Lebanon and Syria see also Hourani (1947, p. 61–90).

11 IAYE, folder 36.6/1835, Greek Consulate at Beirut (Nicolas Thésée), nr. 7, 25/6 Mai/June 1835, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs (in French).

12 See IAYE, folder 78.1/1858, Greek Consulate in Beirut (George Pakmor), nr. 169, 27 May 1858 (old calendar), to Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

13 Ibid.

14 See IAYE, folder 36.6/1857, Greek Consulate in Beirut (George Pakmor), 8/20 July 1857, to Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

15 IAYE, folder 77.2/1859, Greek Consulate in Beirut (George Pakmor), nr. 10, 15 August 1859 (old calendar), to Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

16 See IAYE, folder 36.6/1857, Greek Consulate in Beirut (George Pakmor), nr. 292, 13 July 1857, to Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

17 See the relevant documents in IAYE, folder 36.6/1860, especially the reports of the Greek Consul at Beirut Nikolaos Kanaris. Also see IAYE, folder 78.1/1864.

18 See e.g. IAYE, folder, 36.6/1860, Greek Consulate in Beirut (Nikolaos Kanaris), nr. 184, 22 May 1860 (old calendar), to the Minister of Foreign Affairs A.G. Kountouriotis.

19 The previous consul, George Pakmor, underlined in many reports that France was promoting Catholic education and acted as a protector of the Maronites.

20 IAYE, folder, 36.6/1860, Greek Consulate in Beirut (Nikolaos Kanaris), nr. 184, 22 May 1860 (old calendar), to the Minister of Foreign Affairs A.G. Kountouriotis.

21 IAYE, folder, 36.6/1860, Greek Consulate in Beirut (Nikolaos Kanaris), nr. 184, 22 May 1860 (old callendar}, to the Minister of Foreign Affairs A.G. Kountouriotis and the documents attached to this report.

22 IAYE, folder 97.1/1860: Relief for the Christians of Syria with reports from many consulates and list of contributors. See also Aion, 8 October 1860 (contributions from the Greeks in Romania) and Athina, 9 October 1860 (contributions from Ioannina).

23 IAYE, folder Α.Α.Κ.-ID/1860, Minister of Foreign Affairs (A.G. Kountouriotis), nr. 5268, 14/26 July 1860, to Spiridon Tricoupis, resident minister in London.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Dimitrios M. Kontogeorgis

Dimitrios D. Kontogeorgis studied at the University of Athens and is a lecturer of Modern Greek History at the Department of History and Archaeology of the University of Cyprus (Nicosia). He had previously taught Modern Greek and Southeastern European history in universities in Greece (International Hellenic University, Ionian University, and University of Ioannina). His broader research interests focus on Modern Greek and Balkan political and intellectual history, Diasporas, as well as the economic history of South-Eastern Europe, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea region. He has participated in national and international projects and has published various articles in journals and collective volumes.