Developing Petra: UNESCO, the World Bank, and America in the desert

ABSTRACT

This article charts the nascent development agendas for archaeological heritage and tourism at Petra in Jordan. We begin with the early internationalism of UNESCO and its participation programme for Petra followed by the restructuring of American foreign policy interests to embed heritage tourism within USAID projects. A technocratic tourism-as-assistance model galvanised USAID and the World Bank’s interest in Petra, as it did the CIA, the American Schools of Oriental Research, the US National Park Service, and Jordan’s Department of Antiquities. Thus, we reveal how saving Petra was underwritten by an increasing American vigilance in the Middle East. Unlike the educational and humanitarian components of the United Nations programme, the USAID and World Bank initiatives at Petra were almost exclusively directed toward tourism development, generating hard-currency revenue, monetising the Nabataean ruins, and sowing the seeds of predatory capitalism. Our longitudinal study reveals that what has been sustained at Petra is not the preservation of heritage, nor support for local communities, but rather an overburden of international bureaucracy and consultancy culture.

KEYWORDS:

• Archaeology
• heritage tourism
• security
• Jordan
• USA

Acknowledgements

Lynn Meskell would like to thank Sang Phan at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris who generously offered his expertise and guidance navigating the archives over the years. Louise Martin at University College London and Felicity Cobbing at the Palestine Exploration Fund have also shared their time and considerable knowledge throughout the project. Christina Luke extends sincere thanks to the various archivists at Cornell University for access to the A. Henry Detweiler papers; former Deputy Director and curator Joseph A Greene for access to the ASOR archives, then held at the Semitic Museum (now the Harvard Museum of the Ancient Near East); and for various papers, Andrew Wright at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago. We thank Morag Kersel for conversations about work in Jordan as well as Shatha Abu-Khafajah, Annalisa Bolin, Nathan Citino, Tara Ingman, Madison Leeson, Trinidad Rico and Chris Roosevelt for their critical feedback and encouragement on earlier drafts. Finally, we acknowledge Sarah Irving and the reviewers at Contemporary Levant for their constructive insights.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors .

Notes

1 Letter from J. K. van der Haagen to H. Steckeweh (Archaeological Museum, Jerusalem), 25 November 1959. UNESCO Archives, File reference 069 (569.5) AMS 75.94 Preservation of Cultural Property, Jordan.

2 Ibid.

3 USAID contract 1 July–31 August 1964. A. Henry Detweiler papers, Cornell University (hereafter Cornell AHD papers), File reference 15-2-1363/B2c.1_1964

4 One can access many of the correspondences through the online portal of the JFK Presidential Library.

5 USAID’s 1963 support is given in the 1973 Report to Congress. Summary of United States Assistance to Jordan. Department of State Agency for International Development, Pp 28, 32, 35. For details on the funding to the JDA, see Observations on US/AID Proposals to ASOR, Cornell AHD papers, File reference 15-2-1363/B8c.1. ASOR archives, File reference ASOR Plan with AID.

6 William B. Macomber Oral History Interview. JFK Archives, File reference JFK#1, 02/14/1969.

7 3 March 1964 A.H. Detweiler to C.H. Kraeling. ASOR archives, File reference ASOR AID 1.1.1, GEN COR 64 -65. ASOR was not established as a full 501(c)3 in the US, and thus could not accept a federal contract. Detweiler’s reputation enabled him to persuade Cornell University to accept the USAID contract. In addition to his role as ASOR’s President, he was the Dean of Architecture at Cornell. He knew Jordan well, having trained at Jerash in the 1930s. He was a member of the US UNESCO Committee for Nubia and directed the restoration project at Sardis, at the time the largest to date in Turkey (Luke 2019).

8 Letter from Hermon H. Granger to A.H. Detweiler, 16 October 1964. Cornell AHD papers, File reference 15-2-1363/B2c.1_1964.

9 A.H. Detweiler Report, 22 July 1964. ASOR archives, File reference ASOR AID 1.1.1, GEN COR 64 -65.

10 A.H. Detweiler to Carl H. Kraeling, 3 March 1964, ASOR archives, File reference ASOR AID 1.1.1, GEN COR 64–65.

11 A.H. Detweiler to Carl H. Kraeling, 3 March 1964, ASOR archives, File reference ASOR AID 1.1.1, GEN COR 64–65.

12 A.H. Detweiler to T. Phelps, 25 September 1964, ASOR archives, File reference ASOR AID 1.1.8, First National City Bank 64–65.

13 A.H. Detweiler to Prescott H. Williams, Jr., 24 May 1965. Cornell AHD papers, File reference 15-2-1363/B9c.1.

14 In 1970, ASOR in Jerusalem was renamed the William Foxwell Albright Institute of Archaeological Research and the American Schools for Oriental Research (ASOR) became the umbrella organisation for American centres in the Middle East. ASOR was recently renamed the American Society of Overseas Research.

15 Mission Report to Jordan, Said Naqvi, 17 May to 7 July 1974. UNESCO Archives, File reference CLP/02/1/304 069.72 (569.5).

16 Letter from Bernard Feilden to Said Zulficar, 12 September 1977, UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/02/1/304/788.

17 Letter from Said Zulficar to Ignatius Menezes, IBRD, 9 January 1978. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/02/1/315/24.

18 Letter from Said Zulficar to M. Van Gent, World Bank, 2 August 1977. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/02/1/304/ 107. 2.

19 Faulkner and Fielden mission to Petra and Jerash, Report to UNESCO, 8–12 October 1978. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP.

20 McNamara’s visit to Syria and Jordan. November 1974, World Bank Group archives, Folder 1773172.

21 Letter from Paul G. Hoffman UNDP to Robert S. McNamara at IBRD, 6 November 1969. World Bank Group archives, Folder 1201418. We also note that McNamara’s vision was structured in part by his work with the Kennedy and Johnson administrations as US Secretary of Defense. We also point to his corporate experience in finance and policy (and ultimately as President) at Ford Motor Company in the 1950s and early 1960s.

22 Press release by G. Bolla, 2 July 1976. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/02/1/304/ 107. 2.

23 The Resettlement Project of the Badul Bedouin of Petra by G.J. Obermeyer and Carla Maklouf Obermeyer, American University of Beirut. 15–23 February 1978. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP.

24 For example, see the UNDP tourism project from Bali that informed the World Bank policy. Appendix G, ‘Tourism Projects’, pages 66–73 in draft report, with recommendations on the use of Anthropology in Project operations of the World Bank Group. Draft report by Central Projects Staff at IBRD, Glynn Cochrane and Raymond Noronha. Personal Papers of Gloria Davis. World Bank Group archives, Folder 30098640.

25 The Resettlement Project of the Badul Bedouin of Petra by G.J. Obermeyer and Carla Maklouf Obermeyer, American University of Beirut. 15–23 February 1978. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP.

26 Letter from Paul Power to Said Zulifcar, Division of Cultural Heritage UNESCO, 6 November 1979. UNESCO June Mission to Petra/Jerash. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP.

27 Confidential Report by Colin Brooker to Said Zulficar. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP.

28 Letter from Paul Power to Said Zulficar, 26 July 1979 and Letter from Paul Power to Said Zulficar, 24 June 1980. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP.

29 Letter from Paul Perrot to Laurent Levi-Strauss, 5 July 1996. UNESCO Archives, File reference WHC/74/304.1 502.7(569.5) C Part 1 Jordan.

30 https://chemonics.com/our-approach/our-commitment-to-industry/, accessed 11 March 2021.

31 Letter from Said Zulficar to Bernard Feilden, 4 November 1977. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP 1977–1979.

32 Letter from Said Zulficar to Bernard Feilden, 4 November 1977. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP 1977–1979.

33 Memo from E. Echeverria to Yusef Alami, Annex III Jordan: Petra and Jerash Tourism Project. Execution of the Project. 2 December 1977. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP 1977–1979.

34 Letter from Said Zulficar to Mr. Elliott. 27 April 1978. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/82. For tensions amongst groups see The Resettlement Project of the Badul Bedouin of Petra by G.J. Obermeyer and Carla Maklouf Obermeyer, American University of Beirut. 15–23 February 1978. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP 1977–1979.

35 The Resettlement Project of the Badul Bedouin of Petra by G.J. Obermeyer and Carla Maklouf Obermeyer, American University of Beirut. 15–23 February 1978. UNESCO Archives, File reference CC/CH/01/1/304/JP 1977–1979.

36 https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/2177 accessed 13 March 2021.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Lynn Meskell

Lynn Meskell, Penn Integrates Knowledge (PIK) Professor, Department of Anthropology, School of Arts & Sciences, Penn Museum, and Weitzman School of Design, University of Pennsylvania, USA

Christina Luke

Christina Luke, Associate Professor Department of Archaeology & History of Art, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey.