The socio-cultural experience of Chinese international students in Australian schools: challenges and opportunities

ABSTRACT

Objective

The needs and experiences of Chinese international students in the context of secondary education have been largely under-researched. Tertiary education research has shown international student populations are particularly susceptible to acculturative stressors, loneliness, and isolation in host cultures therefore it is important to consider these factors amongst secondary students studying abroad who are potentially even more vulnerable.

Method

This qualitative research explored the experiences and challenges faced by Chinese secondary students in Australia and their help-seeking behaviour. Interview data was collected from 17 participants across two different school settings.

Results

Thematic analysis identified three key themes; Adjustment Difficulties, Academic Difference and Help-seeking and support. It was found that the challenges experienced by international students consisted of living, academic and sociocultural factors. Participants reported experiencing cultural discrimination but were reluctant to seek formal help for this.

Conclusion

The results have implications for Australian secondary schools given the high number of international students that study in the country. Recommendations are made for how international students can be better supported.

KEY POINTS

What is already known about this topic:

1. Tertiary research has shown that international students experience a range of acculturative stressors in transitioning to study abroad.

2. School-aged international students are a vulnerable group due to living away from family.

3. There is a lack of research on the acculturative experiences of school aged international students and their support needs.

What this topic adds:

1. Identifies the key factors impacting the adjustment of school-aged international students.

2. Highlights common academic, cultural and social challenges international students face.

3. Provides recommendations for how schools can address identified challenges at a policy and program level to support inclusion and adjustment of international students.

KEYWORDS:

• International students
• secondary education
• sociocultural adjustment
• acculturation
• help-seeking
• language barrier

Introduction

Internationalisation of schooling over recent years has seen increasing numbers of Chinese international students studying in Australian schools. In this context, international students are defined as individuals on a student visa enrolled in a course of study. In October 2022, there were almost 600,000 international students studying in Australia (Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2022). Twenty six percent of these students were from China, making Chinese international students the majority population of international students studying in Australia (Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2022). International students are predominantly enrolled in the higher education sector (353,110), with fewer students enrolled in schools across Australia (11,829; Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2022). Given their status as minors, lack of parental presence and exposure to a wide range of stressors while studying abroad (Kuo & Roysircar, 2006; Popadiuk, 2010), international secondary school students are a vulnerable population. Compared to international tertiary students’ acculturative experiences, the adjustment of secondary students is highly under-researched. Research within the higher education space has highlighted a range of common stressors experienced by acculturating international students.

Factors contributing to acculturative stress

Culture

The “cultural distance hypothesis” posits that when the acculturating person’s home country is culturally different, or distant, from the host country, they are more likely to experience adjustment difficulties and acculturative stress, compared to those with culturally similar home and host countries (Chirkov et al., 2008; Yan & Berliner, 2011), such as in language, social structure, religion or politics etc. The greater the difference, the greater potential for adjustment difficulties. For example, Asian international students have been found to experience significantly more acculturative stress when adjusting to Western countries (e.g., America and Australia) compared to students arriving from European countries (Akhtar & Kroner-Herwig, 2015; Yan & Berliner, 2011), suggesting greater cultural distance between the countries. The significant levels of acculturative stress experienced by Chinese international students can be attributed to living, academic, and sociocultural factors.

Lifestyle

International Chinese students studying abroad often rely on alternative forms of accommodation, such as homestay and boarding, which can present inherent difficulties (Popadiuk, 2010). Challenges faced in homestay accommodation include adjustment to the family’s schedules and feeling uncomfortable in an unfamiliar environment, while challenges experienced in boarding accommodation include difficulties engaging with their local roommates due to different cultural backgrounds and lifestyles (Berg & Farbenblum, 2019; Popadiuk, 2010; Wu et al., 2015). Other lifestyle stressors experienced by international students include being independent and self-reliant in the host country, seeking employment and adjusting to the transportation system (Khawaja & Stallman, 2011; Macionis et al., 2019; Popadiuk, 2010; Yan & Berliner, 2011). These living stressors can lead to feelings of social isolation, loneliness, and homesickness (Popadiuk, 2010; Yao, 2016; Yu & Wright, 2016).

Academic

Academic stressors experienced by Chinese international students include different teaching and learning styles in Western education settings compared to the home country, and limited ability to communicate with teachers and peers due to the language barrier (Macionis et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2015; Yan & Berliner, 2011; Yu & Wright, 2016). These challenges lead to reduced participation and engagement in the classroom, and limited opportunities to practice the host country’s language skills (Heng, 2018; Zhou et al., 2010). Difficulties with language have also been reported in the few studies examining the experiences of Chinese students studying in Australian secondary schools. One of the biggest problems reported was language proficiency, specifically in relation to understanding, reading, writing and speaking in English (Zhou et al., 2010), with such difficulties identified as continuing much longer than anticipated (Lindner & Margetts, 2021).

Sociocultural

Different interpersonal communication styles often limit interactions between domestic and international students and can result in racism and discrimination that is targeted towards international students’ culture and country (Khawaja & Stallman, 2011; Macionis et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2015; Yan & Berliner, 2011; Yu & Wright, 2016). As a result, international students are more likely to interact and develop friendships with other international students based on ease of communication, shared interests, and cultural similarities (Macionis et al., 2019; Yan & Berliner, 2011; Yu & Wright, 2016). Given the significant challenges experienced by international students while studying abroad, it is important to understand the role of coping in helping students mitigate such stressors.

Help-seeking among international students

Exposure to acculturative stress for prolonged periods of time, if not appropriately managed, leads to psychological distress and adjustment difficulties (Constantine et al., 2004). Berry’s (1992) model of acculturation proposes an individual’s adaptation strategies as sitting along two dimensions, the first is retention or rejection of the home culture and the second, retention or rejection of the host culture. Moderating factors impacting on acculturation and positive adaptation outcomes, as identified within Berry’s (2006) updated model, are help-seeking behaviours and social support. Sources of help-seeking can be professional (i.e., psychologist, counsellor) and/or informal (i.e., family, friends; Becker et al., 2018). Recent research exploring help-seeking behaviour of international tertiary students has found that students are more likely to seek help for physical health and academic problems, which are more culturally acceptable difficulties, compared to mental health problems (Becker et al., 2018; Popadiuk, 2010; Skromanis et al., 2018). Heng (2018) examined the help-seeking tendencies of undergraduate Chinese international students studying in America over the span of a year. The researcher found that none of the students reported seeking professional help or using counselling services, despite the difficulties they faced while adjusting to the American education system (Heng, 2018). These results indicate that while international students are more vulnerable to psychological distress due to acculturation experiences, they are also less likely to seek support and utilise mental health services (Ra, 2016).

Current study

There is currently limited research examining how Chinese international students in secondary school’s cope with the challenges they face while studying overseas. This is an important area of research given the challenges identified within tertiary education literature. The current study aimed to explore the acculturation experiences of Chinese international students engaged in secondary school education in Australia. The following research questions were explored:

1. What acculturative stressors do Chinese international students experience while studying secondary school in Australia?

2. Do Chinese international students engage in help-seeking behaviours and social support when facing acculturative stressors?

Based on previous research with tertiary populations, students were predicted to report a range of challenges relating to cultural, lifestyle, language and educational differences.

Method

Participants

Participating schools were recruited via convenience sampling. Two private independent schools in Melbourne, Australia were recruited; one school was co-educational and the other was a girls school. The sample consisted of 17 Year 9–12 secondary students from China (age M = 17.47, SD = .91; 9 females, 8 males). All students participated in a focus group or an individual interview about their experiences studying abroad. Students had studied in Australia for 2–6 years, with an average of 3 years. All participants either boarded at the school or lived in homestay accommodation. Participants were excluded if they did not originate from China, had Australian citizenship or were permanent residents. Participation was voluntary and no reimbursement was offered.

Procedure

This research was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of The University of Melbourne (Ethics ID. 1953958.1). Permission to conduct the study was attained from participating school principals. To ensure accessibility of information to parents/guardians, the plain language statement (PLS) which described the nature and purpose of the research and consent forms were translated into simplified Mandarin by a known native speaker. This was checked for clarity and accuracy by two other native speakers. Once project endorsement was received from the school principals, potential participants received the PLS and consent forms, copies were also sent to parents/guardians. The student’s consent and that of either a parent or guardian was required if the student was under 18 years of age.

Measures

Participants provided demographic information via Qualtrics. Participants took part in semi-structured interviews with a researcher at their school, all interviews were delivered in English. Five group interviews were conducted with groups of two to five students, whilst three students were interviewed individually at their request. The interview followed a set of semi-structured questions that explored experiences related to: adjustment, living accommodation, education, lifestyle, racial discrimination, social interactions and recommendations for future international students (see Appendix 1). The interviews were recorded using a phone and a laptop.

Data analysis

The study employed a qualitative research design. Recorded interview data was transcribed manually and analysed thematically using NVivo by the first author. Interview responses were analysed thematically utilising Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step methodology. A deductive approach to coding was employed, whereby the coding categories reflected the interview schedule (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Firstly, “familiarisation with data” was conducted by reading the interview transcripts multiple times. Secondly, “generating initial codes” was achieved by identifying all relevant features of the data and organizing them in groups based on common ideas, using NVivo to facilitate the process. Thirdly, “identifying themes” involved sorting initial codes into broad level themes and identifying exemplars. Fourthly, the first author “review(ed) themes” by evaluating the coded data within each theme and assessing the validity of the themes in relation to the larger data set. To improve the validity and reliability of the finding’s inter-coding was used. This involves having multiple analysts review the data to reduce the potential bias that originates from a single person coding and identifying themes (Patton, 1999). Two other researchers independently analysed the same qualitative dataset, and the findings were compared for consistency. Agreement on the final themes was reached by consensus between authors. Fifth, “defining and naming themes” occurred by further describing and refining each theme. Finally, “producing the written report” involved extracting data to provide evidence for each theme.

Results

Participants’ experiences are reported under the following key themes (see Figure 1). Three main themes emerged; adjustment difficulties, academic differences and help-seeking and support.

Figure 1. Chinese international secondary students’ experiences of Australian schooling and life.

Adjustment difficulties and experiences in Australia

Language

Fourteen participants reported that the language barrier was a significant problem academically and socially. Some subjects were difficult because students struggled to understand the teacher and answer questions, particularly when new terminology led to the meaning of words being guessed. As a result, participants needed more time to understand the content by completing additional homework and familiarising themselves with the language over time. Participants also used electronic dictionaries to aid with their studies. Some participants found that writing English essays was more difficult than the oral component, and this hindered them from receiving a high score. As a result of the language barriers involved in academic study, most participants chose the “Asian five” subjects: Chemistry, Physics, Maths Methods, Specialist Maths (advanced level) and English as a second language (ESL), which place less demand on English.

It’s hard to study a science subject in a different language, because when you answer the question it (requires) you to (have) more language skill and it’s hard to read the textbook as well. (Interview Group 1, male student)

Due to the language barrier, students identified that it was difficult for them to communicate with local students fluently, as it was “effortful” to conceive what to say and to “translate from Mandarin to English mentally”.

You can’t communicate with them (local students) fluently because my first language is not English so I have to make the sentence in my mind while I am speaking with them so it’s not easy for me or for them to communicate. (Interview Group 1, male student)

Several participants noted that locals spoke too fast and used slang when speaking; thus, it was difficult to understand their conversations. Cultural differences in the content of conversations also made it difficult to interact with local students, hence 15 participants reported having friendships with other Chinese students only, as communication was easier and more interests were shared. Interestingly, 10 participants reported that over time they adjusted to the Australian culture and were familiar with the school and the people.

Living situation

Some participants felt uncomfortable and lonely staying with an unfamiliar family e.g., in homestay. Seven participants reported feeling constrained by the many rules in the homestay, which affected their comfort and wellbeing; for example, a “shower limit of five minutes” or “not having the freedom to turn on the heater”. One participant shared that “it’s freezing at night”. Several felt that their homestays did not feel like home; rather, it was “a place to live and eat”. Some also struggled to adapt to their homestay families’ differing schedules and traditions.

… we have different time schedules with the homestay family and different tradition. They tell us every day that “you need to sleep earlier” and “you need to (turn off) lights that you don’t need” and “you need to be careful how long you take a shower” all these kind of things. We have never cared about this when we were in China and when we were living with our parents. (Interview Group 2, female student)

Participants who lived in boarding accommodation experienced difficulties sharing rooms with others due to differing lifestyles, cultural backgrounds and schedules. One participant reported that during bedtime, her local roommates were “loud when sleeping, it’s 12 o’clock and they are still on their phone and speak loud”. Another participant experienced conflict with her roommate, who reported to her parent that the international students were “very loud in the morning” and she said “if they don’t respect us, we won’t respect them”. Half of the students who lived in boarding accommodation shared a dislike of the food being served; they found it “weird”, “oily” and “every night there will be potatoes”.

Some struggled to manage their independence without their family’s supervision and preferred having parents tell them what to do. Several participants commented that the self-reliance aspect was the most difficult – for example, managing self-care, their studies and leisure activities. In relation to Australia’s lifestyle, some participants reported that Australian public transport was more expensive and inconvenient compared with China’s public transport.

Cultural discrimination

One of the most concerning areas reported by participants involved experiencing cultural discrimination from local students. Five participants reported experiencing discourtesy towards their country and culture. They felt “angry”, “sad” and “hurt” but felt they were still expected to “make an effort” to establish friendships with the local students. Their experiences involved negative, unfriendly and rude interactions with local students regarding their culture and country. Some felt uncomfortable and were annoyed at being called derogatory names by classmates.

I think Australians have a stereotype of Chinese people because like 95% of Australians are very nice but the 5% of Australians are maybe racist and they will make you feel very annoyed and I have met so many… (Interview Group 1, male student) most of them are friendly but there’s still some people who (are) very rude to you, to your culture and to your country. (Interview Group 2, female student)

Academic differences

Seven participants reported that there were more subject choices and opportunities to complete subjects that the student enjoyed (e.g., woodwork, film) in Australia. Australian schools also offered more excursions and activities compared with schools in China. According to participants, in China, students experienced higher stress and academic pressures because there were harsher academic rules, more intensive homework and less completion time provided. For instance, in China, students are ranked for every exam, and “you have to finish all seven subjects’ homework everyday”. Participants noted that in China, high academic achievements are perceived to be the only path to success, whereas alternative paths to success are encouraged in Australia.

I found that the teachers (in Australia) they want you to study by yourself more than they tell you what to do and in China, I would just do what the teacher would tell me to do and finish the homework. Also we have less students in one class in Australia, so you can get more attention from the teacher. (Interview group 2, female student)

China has “less of a work – life balance” because students study the entire time, whereas Australia provides other activities to learn from. Participants perceived Australia’s education system to be more flexible and relaxing, “Australia encourages independent learning and study”, whereas students were more “teacher-dependent” in China. Six participants noted that Australia has fewer students in classrooms compared with China; thus, individual attention is received from the teacher more often. Further, participants enjoyed being able to express their opinions and ask more questions in class. There was also a notable difference between teachers in China and Australia, with teachers reported to be “nicer and less strict” in Australia.

Help seeking and support

Participants utilised a range of strategies to manage challenges they faced. To manage cultural discrimination participants used active strategies such as informing their international advisor and year coordinators. Participants who used this strategy considered the response to be supportive and appropriate and allowed the international student to remain anonymous.

I told my year coordinator and she solved this problem … she found the boy who was rude to us and she actually told, warn(ed) him that “if you do this again, you will be kicked out from the school” uhm and she didn’t mention our name. I think it’s quite good because after that I found that this boy didn’t do this again. (Interview Group 2, female student)

However, participants also used avoidant strategies with some participants reporting keeping silent and ignoring local students because they were afraid teachers would not help them or would expose them to the local student involved. To help with language challenges, participants commonly sought the advice of friends and classmates regarding their English and improving their writing. Further, practicing their English in activities and conversations with people was considered a useful strategy. Other alternatives included the use of media and creating a vocabulary list to supplement their English learning.

To promote social interactions between locals and Chinese international students, participants suggested that secondary schools should provide more socialising opportunities. Schools could “partner local and international students” e.g., a buddy system, to promote inclusion and increase international students’ familiarity with the culture, school and people. One participant added that for newcomers, “mixing international students into different classes with local students” would be useful. To monitor and evaluate the wellbeing of international students, one participant suggested that a survey could be distributed each term to anonymously inform teachers of any problems faced by students, as face-to-face conversations may be perceived as too intimidating. Other participants felt that it was the student’s responsibility to stand up for themselves in times of trouble and to seek help and adopt an active approach to interacting with local students instead of remaining in their “comfort zone”.

Discussion

This research explored the acculturative experiences and help-seeking behaviour of a sample of Chinese international students studying in Australian secondary schools. Participants identified a broad range of stressors related to living, academics, and sociocultural factors, which are comparable to those experienced by tertiary students (Khawaja & Stallman, 2011; Macionis et al., 2019; Yan & Berliner, 2011).

Consistent with previous research, results indicated that living independently, either in homestay accommodation or boarding accommodation, was a source of stress (Berg & Farbenblum, 2019; Popadiuk, 2010; Wu et al., 2015; Yao, 2016). Living in homestay accommodation led to loneliness, and students were uncomfortable staying with an unfamiliar family and coped with significant constraints that affected their comfort of living. This is concerning given this type of living situation is typical for international students studying at schools without boarding accommodation. Differences in teaching and learning styles was also reported to be a stressor for international secondary school students, with the language barrier largely contributing to these difficulties (Heng, 2018; Macionis et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2015; Yu & Wright, 2016; Zhou et al., 2010). Limited language proficiency affected Chinese secondary students’ progress in academic reading, their writing ability and their understanding of conversations with locals, who spoke too fast and tended to use slang. This was consistent with the findings of Asian secondary students in Australia and the US (Kim & Okazaki, 2014; Zhou et al., 2010). Consequently, Chinese secondary students tended to establish friendships with other Chinese students due to the removal of the language barrier and feelings of loneliness, in accordance with previous research (Cross, 2006; Kim & Okazaki, 2014; Lindner & Margetts, 2021).

Adjustment to the sociocultural aspects of living in Australia was identified as a source of stress for many of the participants, and aligns with previous studies (Khawaja & Stallman, 2011; Macionis et al., 2019; Popadiuk, 2010; Yan & Berliner, 2011). Participants were subject to racial discrimination while studying abroad, which included explicit racial name calling and bullying, as well as implicit bias, such as being treated differently. Successful sociocultural adaptation requires acceptance of different cultures, intercultural awareness and acquiring appropriate interpersonal communication skills (Heng, 2018; Macionis et al., 2019; Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006). Given the tendency reported by some international students to withdraw and engage in passive coping strategies when faced with these stressors, they may not have been given enough opportunities to learn and practice these skills. More explicit teaching of these skills by educators could be beneficial for both local and international students to support friendship development.

According to Berry’s (2006) acculturation model, social support and help-seeking behaviours can moderate the adjustment process. Research on help-seeking behaviour of international students at the tertiary level has typically reported poor use of formal help-seeking (Clough et al., 2019). It is therefore not surprising that participants were more likely to seek informal forms of support, such as from peers and friends, rather than formal support, such as from teachers or counsellors (Becker et al., 2018; Bertram et al., 2014; Popadiuk, 2010). Research has shown that international students are at increased risk of poor mental health outcomes, including anxiety and depression, due to the unfamiliar host culture (Ra & Trusty, 2015) therefore it is important to focus attention on ways to promote and encourage greater help seeking behaviour in international students in the school environment.

Implications for practice

The findings provide opportunities for secondary schools to provide further support and guidance around the acculturative stressors experienced by international students. Given the significant number of international students studying secondary education in Australia, schools have a level of responsibility to support a positive learning and sociocultural experience. For sociocultural factors, focusing on increasing intercultural knowledge and awareness, explicit teaching of interpersonal communication skills, and providing more opportunities to engage in extracurricular activities for a better understanding of Australia’s lifestyle and culture, could lead to more positive adaptation outcomes (Kim et al., 2012; Macionis et al., 2019; Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006). Promoting cultural diversity and cross-cultural acceptance in schools, and having policies in place related to cultural discrimination, could help to address the racism and discrimination experienced by international students (Khawaja & Stallman, 2011; Macionis et al., 2019). Programs and activities could be developed to bridge the gap between international and local students, particularly to build social interactions, improve language proficiency and reduce cultural discrimination. The findings indicate a need for secondary schools to consider their policies related to cultural discrimination and promote greater cultural diversity, awareness and sensitivity as a whole-school approach. Supporting Chinese international students to learn Australian cultural and social norms would be beneficial, as it is also possible that international students may misinterpret their interactions with local peers and confuse this with cultural discrimination.

Reported help-seeking behaviours indicated that students were not always confident to seek help from a formal source such as teachers. Upskilling teachers in basic cultural awareness and mental health training, as well as an understanding of transitional challenges experienced by international students, could provide effective support. Given participants reported that adjustment became easier with time, more settled international students could act as mentors to support younger students who are experiencing the initial transition period, thus providing further help-seeking opportunities.

Limitations and future research

Chinese secondary international students are a difficult population to research largely due to their status as minors and the challenges inherent in obtaining consent from overseas parents. Given this, the participant sample of this research is small. This limits the generalisability of the findings to the broader experiences of Chinese international secondary school students. Given that this is a difficult population to reach, more research and data needs to be collected in this area to strengthen these preliminary results and provide a better understanding of the acculturation experiences of Chinese international secondary school students. Additionally, the current study was conducted over a short period and explored international students’ adjustment cross-sectionally. Exploring the transition experiences longitudinally will provide greater insights into the acculturative process of international students.

Secondly the use of qualitative data is a limitation. Qualitative data depends heavily on researcher skill and interpretation; thus, this can be easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases and characteristics. This could be managed in future research by inclusion of quantitative measures of adjustment. Another limitation involved the sole focus on student perspectives; it would be valuable to include the perspectives of teachers, parents and accommodation providers to obtain augmented views.

Conclusion

The current study found that secondary aged Chinese international students, in this sample, experienced a broad range of acculturative stressors relating to living, academic and adjustment factors. Given the identified vulnerability of this population, schools need to be aware of the explicit challenges affecting these students to maximise opportunities for proactive support. This study contributes to the growing literature on acculturative experiences of this population and highlights important directions for providing targeted support to international students studying in Australian schools.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available.

Appendix 1.

Semi-Structured Interview Questions

1. Have you studied abroad before? Have you had any experience travelling overseas before? How frequently?

2. Whose decision was it to move your education to Australia? What were the reasons for pursuing an education in Australia?

3. What were your thoughts about schooling in Australia, before you came here?

4. Do you have any relatives living in Melbourne? If not, who do you consider to be your social support?

5. Describe your experience living in a boarding/homestay situation. What do you like/dislike about it?

6. What do you like about Australia and your schooling?

7. What do you find difficult about Australia and your schooling?

8. What is the biggest difference between your schooling in Australia and your home country?

9. How do you feel about learning in an English speaking environment? What is it like for you?

10. At school and outside of school, are your friends typically Asian international or domestic students? Or a mix of both?

11. How frequently do you spend time with them?

12. What do you do when you spend time with them?

13. If their friends are primarily Asian international students:

    a) Do you find any difficulty interacting with the domestic students? If yes, what are the reasons?

    b) Describe your interactions with the Asian international students. What are your reasons for mixing primarily with Asian international students?

14. If their friends are primarily domestic students:

    a) Do you find any difficulty interacting with the Asian international students? If yes, what are the reasons?

    b) Describe your interactions with the domestic students. What are your reasons for mixing primarily with domestic students?

15. If a mix of both:

    a) Describe your interactions with domestic and Asian internationals. Are there any differences or similarities?

16. How easy/difficult do you find maintaining contact with your family and friends from your home country?

17. What has made the experience of studying in Australia challenging?

18. Have you experienced any racial discrimination since you arrived in Australia?

    a) If you are comfortable to share, what was your experience like?

    b) Had you heard about any racial discrimination in Australia, before coming here?

19. Since coming here, how would you describe your adjustment to the Australian schooling and culture? What are the main differences you’ve observed? What has been most difficult to adjust to?

20. How can international students be better supported in Australian secondary schools?