The Rise and Fall of Israel’s Anti-Apartheid Policy: The Case of Israel’s Relations with the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) During the 1960s

ABSTRACT

In contrast to the strained relationship between Israel and South Africa’s anti-apartheid movements in recent decades, the 1960s witnessed Israel actively championing an anti-apartheid stance. From the early 1960s onwards, various anti-apartheid groups sought assistance from Israel in their fight against white supremacy, viewing the Jewish State as a natural ally in their struggle against racism. This led to the formation of a relationship between Israel and the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), a significant development often overlooked in contemporary historical narratives. Despite its brevity – spanning less than a decade – this alliance offers valuable insights into African nationalism and its interaction with global Cold War dynamics, while also shedding light on Israel’s multifaceted engagement in Africa. This article aims to reconstruct this historical relationship in detail, emphasizing its significance in elucidating the intricate connections between the Arab-Israeli conflict and the racial conflict in South Africa during the 1960s.

KEYWORDS:

• Apartheid
• Cold War
• decolonization
• Israel
• liberation movements
• South Africa

Acknowledgments

The author expresses gratitude to Alex Lichtenstein, Michelle Moyd, Roberta Pergher, Gunther Jikeli, John Hanson, Benjamin Pogrund, Franck Salameh, and the anonymous reviewers for their invaluable feedback and contributions throughout the process.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ Larry Benjamin and Steven Gruzd, “South Africa and Israel Since 1994: The Changing Anatomy of a Complex Relationship,” Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 12, no. 2 (May 4, 2018): 179–95.

² Asher Lubotzky, “Before the Apartheid Analogy: South African Radicals and Israel/Palestine, 1940s–1970s” (Ph.D., Indiana University, 2023).

³ Inkundla ya Bantu, May 12, 1948.

⁴ The main histories about the PAC – none of them mention the movement’s contacts with Israel – are Kwandiwe Merriman Kondlo, In the Twilight of the Revolution: The Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (South Africa), 1959–1994 (Basel, 2009); Bernard Leeman, “Lesotho and the Struggle for Azania” (PhD diss., Bremen University, 1985; rev. ed. 2015); Tom Geoffrey Lodge, “Insurrectionism in South Africa: The Pan-Africanist Congress and the Poqo Movement, 1959–1965” (PhD diss., University of York, 1984).

⁵ Rafael Ruppin, Sheliḥut le-Ṭanganiḳah (Tel Aviv, 1986); Arye Oded, Africa and Israel: A Unique Case in Israeli Foreign Relations (Elstree, 2018).

⁶ Zach Levey, Israel in Africa, 1956–1976, History of International Relations Library 35 (Dordrecht, 2012); Yotam Gidron, Israel in Africa: Security, Migration, Interstate Politics, African Arguments (London, 2020); Arye Oded, Africa and Israel: A Unique Case in Israeli Foreign Relations (Elstree, 2018); Asher Lubotzky, “‘We Are Returning to Africa, and Africa is Coming Back to Us:’ Israel’s Evolving Relations with Africa,” in Who Owns Africa?: Neocolonialism, Investment, and the New Scramble, ed. Bekeh Utietiang Ukelina (Leuven University Press, 2022).

⁷ Uri Dan, “Yisrael serva … ,” Maʿariv, June 11, 1961, 1; Y. Ginsburg, “Yisrael serva … ,” Haboker, June 12, 1961, 1; “Lo ushrah … ,” Maʿariv, October 22, 1961, 1.

⁸ Lishka to Mabar, June 14, 1963, Israel State Archives [ISA], 00071706.82.17.74.7E, חצ-3387/15.

⁹ Gideon Shimoni, Community and Conscience: The Jews in Apartheid South Africa (Hanover, 2003); Milton Shain, Fascists, Fabricators and Fantasists: Antisemitism in South Africa from 1948 to the Present (Auckland Park, South Africa, 2022).

¹⁰ Sasha Polakow-Suransky, The Unspoken Alliance (New York, 2010), 42–44.

¹¹ Cardiff Marney, “The Struggle for Unity in South Africa,” Azania News, June 2, 1966, 9–17; “The Editors Speak: The Pan-Africanist Congress of Azania,” Azania News, July 14, 1966, 2–3. On the ideology of the PAC, see also Thula Simpson, History of South Africa: From 1902 to the Present (New York, 2022), 158–62; Kwandiwe Merriman Kondlo, In the Twilight of the Revolution: The Pan-Africanist Congress of Azania (South Africa), 1959–1994 (Basel, 2009); Tom Geoffrey Lodge, “Insurrectionism in South Africa: The Pan-Africanist Congress and the Poqo Movement, 1959–1965” (PhD diss., University of York, 1984); Benjamin Pogrund, How Can Man Die Better: Sobukwe and Apartheid (London, 1990).

¹² Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation (London, 1996), 30–33; Kondlo, In the Twilight of the Revolution, 68.

¹³ On Pogrund’s friendship with Sobukwe, see Pogrund, How Can Man Die Better. A selection of the two’s correspondence was also published in Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe and Derek Hook, Lie on Your Wounds: The Prison Correspondence of Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe (Johannesburg, 2019).

¹⁴ Pogrund, How Can Man Die Better, 276.

¹⁵ Ibid., 224, 233, 252.

¹⁶ Simpson, History of South Africa (2022), 187–88.

¹⁷ Gregory Houston, Thami ka Plaatjie, and Thozama April, “Military Training and Camps of the Pan Africanist Congress of South Africa, 1961–1981,” Historia 60, no. 2 (2015): 34–35; Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation, 44–48; Simpson, History of South Africa, 184; Sifiso Ndlovu, “The ANC in Exile, 1960–1970,” in Road to Democracy in South Africa, i, 1960–1970 (Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2010), 394–95.

¹⁸ Kwandiwe Kondlo, “‘Diplomacy of National Liberation’ – The Exiled PAC and the International Community, 1962–1990,” Journal of African Foreign Affairs 6, no. 1 (2019): 12–13.

¹⁹ The report about this encounter was handwritten by the Israeli representative in Dar es Salaam, Rafael Ruppin. He mentioned that the general secretary of FOFATUSA visited him but gave the name of Jacob Malek (or Malale). Jacob Nyoase was the general secretary of FOFATUSA at the time, and his future ties with the Israeli embassy in Dar es Salaam have led me to think that Ruppin made a mistake in understanding or writing his name. The report is in Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, May 2, 1961, ISA 00071,706.81CE.48.6D, חצ-3316/12.

²⁰ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, July 24, 1962, ISA 00071,706.81D7.03.A3, חצ-12/1.

²¹ Pretoria to Jerusalem, July 4, 1961, ISA 00071706.821E.D0.D9, חצ-3300/13; Pretoria to Jerusalem, October 31, 1961, ISA 00071,706.81CE.43.B5, חצ-3300/16; “Letter from the National Secretary to His Excellency, the Ambassador for Israel (Johannesburg),” October 26, 1961, ZA HPRA AD2187-H-47, Historical Papers Research Archive, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg; Monrovia to Jerusalem, September 13, 1961, ISA 00071706.821B.16.71, חצ-3300/15; Segal to Israeli Embassy in London, June 23, 1960, ISA 00071706.821E.D0.D9, חצ-3300/13.

²² Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, September 22, 1961, ISA 00071706.821B.16.71, חצ-3300/15. About the SAUF: Matthew Graham, “Campaigning against Apartheid: The Rise, Fall and Legacies of the South Africa United Front, 1960–1962,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 46, no. 6 (2018): 1148–70; Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation, 35–42; Ndlovu, “The ANC in Exile, 1960–1970,” 391–94.

²³ “Sikum siha bein mar A. Avriel samankal l’bein mar R. Ruppin,” Dar es Salaam, September 18, 1961, ISA 00071,706.81CE.48.6D, חצ-3316/12. All direct translations of Hebrew sources are the author’s.

²⁴ Graham, “Campaigning against Apartheid,” 10–11. Graham notes that “very little activity was conducted in the name of the SAUF from April 1961 onwards, and by October 1961, it was reported that it was ‘no longer in existence except in name’ … each liberation movement increasingly worked toward securing their own specific agendas, rather than those of the SAUF as a whole.”

²⁵ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, September 22, 1961, ISA 00071706.821B.16.71, חצ-3300/15.

²⁶ “Israel Tour for United Front Man,” Sunday Times, October 29, 1961, 5.

²⁷ Lorch to Ruppin, December 3, 1961, ISA 00071706.821E.D0.D9, חצ-3300/13.

²⁸ K. Haim (Mossad) to Netanel Lorch, July 10, 1962, ISA 00071706.8217.74.7E, חצ-3387/15.

²⁹ Executive Meeting Summary (Foreign Ministry), June 12, 1963, ISA 00071,706.81EE.50.F3.

³⁰ On relations with liberation movements in southern Africa (mostly Rhodesian and Angolan), see Oded, Africa and Israel, 20–21; Ronen Bergman, “Israel and Africa : Military and Intelligence Liasons” (Doctoral Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2007), 211–16; Yagil Henkin, Ke-dagim ba-sevakh: Rodezyah be-milḥamah (Ben Shemen, 2019), 47, 119, 150. On relations with Angolan liberation movements, see files at ISA 00071,706.81D7.05.BB, חצ-917/16.

³¹ Undated report from late 1963, ISA 00071,706.81FD.22.5B, חצ-3408/43.

³² On the divisions among liberation movements in southern Africa after the Sino-Soviet split, see Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation, 18–22.

³³ Kondlo, In the Twilight of the Revolution, 137; Houston, ka Plaatjie, and April, “Military Training and Camps of the Pan Africanist Congress of South Africa, 1961–1981,” 36–37.

³⁴ Jeremy Scott Friedman, Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World, The New Cold War History (Chapel Hill, 2015); Julia Lovell, Maoism: A Global History (London, 2019).

³⁵ Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation, 43–44, 154; Houston, ka Plaatjie, and April, “Military Training and Camps of the Pan Africanist Congress of South Africa, 1961–1981;” Simpson, History of South Africa, 183. Thomas estimates that by 1964, about twenty-five ANC activists were trained militarily in Egypt.

³⁶ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, January 25, 1963, ISA 00071706.8217.74.7E, חצ-3387/15.

³⁷ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, March 15, 1962; Pretoria to Jerusalem, April 1, 1963; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, May 2, 1963, ISA 00071706.8217.74.7E, חצ-3387/15.

³⁸ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, July 9, 1963, ISA 00071706.820E.AB.F2, חצ-3387/16.

³⁹ “Yisrael man‘ah … ,” Yedioth Aḥronoth, July 9, 1963, 16; “Afrikanim meshabhim et Yisrael … ,” Maʿariv, July 9, 1963, 1.

⁴⁰ New York to Jerusalem, July 17, 1963, ISA 00071706.820E.AB.F2, חצ-3387/16. See the additional undated, handwritten internal correspondence in the same folder. It is unclear what the executive decision was in this regard, as the Israeli censors still treat some of the documents of this affair as confidential.

⁴¹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 7, 1963, ISA 00071706.8217.5E.D5, חצ-3408/32.

⁴² Jerusalem to Pretoria, December 24, 1963, ISA 00071,706.81D7.00.29, חצ-983/6.

⁴³ Jerusalem to Pretoria, December 20, 1963; Jerusalem to Pretoria, December 24, 1963, ISA 00071,706.81D7.00.29, חצ-983/6.

⁴⁴ Hillel to Lishka, December 29, 1963, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁴⁵ Jerusalem to New York, March 20, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁴⁶ Tel Aviv to Washington, January 14, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁴⁷ Catholic Transcript, vol. 66, no. 41, February 6, 1964, 1.

⁴⁸ New York to Jerusalem, February 4, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁴⁹ Jerusalem to New York, March 20, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁵⁰ Jerusalem to Leopoldville, August 3, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁵¹ Leopoldville to Jerusalem, August 5, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁵² Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, November 3, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁵³ Jerusalem to London, November 10, 1964; London to Jerusalem, November 11, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁵⁴ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 17, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁵⁵ Leopoldville to Jerusalem, November 22, 1964; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 23, 1964; Leopoldville to Jerusalem, December 17, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁵⁶ Jerusalem to Leopoldville and London, November 19, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁵⁷ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, December 4, 1964; Toval (Maaf) to Golan (Mashav), December 4, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁵⁸ About the conference, see “N.H.M. … ,” Maʿariv, November 26, 1964, 19; “Ve‘ida beinleumit … ,” Kol Haʿam, November 30, 1964, 4; “Tafkid haisha … ,” Lamerḥav, November 30, 1964, 2.

⁵⁹ The information given by Makunga was corroborated by senior journalist Colin Legum in a conversation with Israeli officials. See Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 19, 1964; Jerusalem to Accra, November 22, 1964; Jerusalem to Accra, November 30, 1964; Jerusalem to London, December 9, 1964; Jerusalem to Dar and London, December 28, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15; Jerusalem to Addis Ababa, December 9, 1964, ISA 00071,706.81ED.ED.F8, חצ-2124/10.

⁶⁰ “Maavak ‘amei afrika … ,” Ḥerut, December 2, 1964, 2.

⁶¹ Accra to Jerusalem, January 19, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17. It is unclear if the visit ever took place.

⁶² Lusaka to Jerusalem, December 17, 1964, ISA 00071706.81.ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁶³ Lusaka to Jerusalem, April 6, 1965; Lusaka to Jerusalem, July 29, 1965; Lusaka to Jerusalem, September 29, 1965; Lusaka to Jerusalem, October 5, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁶⁴ Memorandum by the Pan-Africanist Congress of South Africa, Dar es Salaam, January 15, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁶⁵ In both main PAC’s publications, Pan-Africanist News and Views (published in Cairo since 1963) and Azania News (published in Lusaka since 1966), analogies to Nazism were ubiquitous.

⁶⁶ Memorandum by the Pan-Africanist Congress of South Africa, Dar es Salaam, January 15, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁶⁷ It should be noted that even with such a novel perspective, the memorandum also raised the more common resentment against current Jewish practices in South Africa, stating that “it must be regretted that the present Jewish People in South Africa have permitted their way of thinking to be blinded by their economic interests in this corrupted present White society there.”

⁶⁸ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, February 8, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15; Accra to Jerusalem, February 12, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12; Jerusalem to Lusaka, February 15, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, February 22, 1965, ISA 00071706.8234.8F.20, חצ-3987/33.

⁶⁹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, February 14, 1965, 00071706.81.ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁷⁰ The data regarding Egypt’s and China’s support is from Kondlo, In the Twilight of the Revolution, 152. It is possible that the Israeli cash aid equaled that of Ghana: see C. J. Driver, Patrick Duncan: South African and Pan-African (London: Heinemann, 1980), 235.

⁷¹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, February 18, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁷² Nkula to the Israeli Embassy in Dar es Salaam, February 24, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁷³ FOFATUSA to the Israeli Embassy in Dar es Salaam, March 29, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.57, חצ-3516/15.

⁷⁴ Bein used the biblical-inspired expression “la‘alot ‘al derekh hamelekh” (to get on the King’s Highway). Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, February 22, 1965, ISA 00071706.8234.8F.20, חצ-3987/33.

⁷⁵ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, April 15, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.58, חצ-3516.

⁷⁶ FOFATUSA to the Israeli Embassy in Dar es Salaam, April 17, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁷⁷ FOFATUSA to the Israeli Embassy in Dar es Salaam, June 16, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁷⁸ The Pan-Africanist Congress (Dar es Salaam Office) to the Israeli Embassy in Dar es Salaam, July 26, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁷⁹ The Pan-Africanist Congress to the Israeli Embassy in Dar es Salaam, November 1, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁸⁰ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, April 15, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.58, חצ-3516.

⁸¹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, May 11, 1965; Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, May 19, 1965; Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, June 9, 1965; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, June 22, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁸² Toval to Akiva Igar, October 14, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81D5.B7.E3, חצ-3549/20.

⁸³ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, September 9, 1965, ISA 00071706.8234.8F.20, חצ-3987/33.

⁸⁴ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, September 29, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁸⁵ Dar es Salaam to New York, September 29, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81ED.F8.54, חצ-3516/12.

⁸⁶ Accra to Jerusalem, November 5, 1965; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 23, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁸⁷ Addis Ababa to Jerusalem, November 3, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁸⁸ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 8, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁸⁹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, December 2, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁹⁰ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, October 31, 1965; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 9, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81D0.2D.DE, חצ-1929/11. Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 10, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁹¹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, December 1, 1965, ISA 00071706.8226.76.62, חצ-3518/17.

⁹² Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, November 25, 1965; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, December 8, 1965, ISA 00071,706.81D0.2D.DE, חצ-1929/11.

⁹³ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, Blantyre, Lusaka, and Kinshasa, July 26, 1967, ISA 00071,706.81D4.A6.10, חצ-4092/6.

⁹⁴ A. Arnon, “Siyu‘a l’tn‘uot hashihrur ahrei milhemet sheshet hayamim,” July 20, 1967, ISA 00071,706.81D4.A6.10, חצ-4092/6.

⁹⁵ Jerusalem to Pretoria, August 1, 1967, ISA 00071,706.81D0.39.16.

⁹⁶ Bernard Leeman, “Lesotho and the Struggle for Azania, 1780–1994,” 400–402. The narrative in the paragraph is enriched by original information Israeli diplomats received from various PAC members, which seems to be rather accurate.

⁹⁷ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, June 7, 1968, and June 18, 1968; Lusaka to Jerusalem, June 26, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

⁹⁸ This was not solely Israel’s dilemma, as the OAU decided to suspend assistance to the PAC considering these developments. See “Report on Talks between the PAC and the OAU Liberation Committee Sub-committee,” by Potlako K. Leballo, Dar es Salaam, November 20, 1968. This report appears in Thomas Karis et al., eds., From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882–1990, vol. 5 (Stanford, CA, 1972), 122–23, 161.

⁹⁹ Lusaka to Jerusalem, January 19, 1968, and February 6, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹⁰⁰ Lusaka to Jerusalem, June 26, 1968; Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, July 8, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹⁰¹ Jerusalem to Lusaka, February 5, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹⁰² Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, July 27, 1967, ISA 00071,706.81D4.A6.10, חצ-4092/6.

¹⁰³ “Memorandum from the Pan Africanist Congress of South Africa to the Government of the State of Israel,” February 1969, ISA 00071,706.81D3.9D.CE, חצ-5312/11.

¹⁰⁴ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, February 5, 1968, and August 8, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹⁰⁵ The first anti-Israeli rhetoric I found in a PAC publication was a report about a speech given by the PAC’s representative in Cairo, Makoti, in March 1967 (commemorating the Sharpeville massacre), in which Makoti said that “we support the struggle of the Arab peoples of Palestine, Occupied Yemen and South Arabia against Zionism, imperialism, colonialism and feudalism.” See Azania News, May 4, 1967, 16–17.

¹⁰⁶ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, March 26, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹⁰⁷ “International Review: Middle East Crisis,” Africanist, October 1967, 4.

¹⁰⁸ “The US and the UN,” Africanist, n.d., p. 7, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹⁰⁹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, March 26, 1968, and April 24, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹¹⁰ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, April 3, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹¹¹ Viluma, “Religion: Fascist Style Opium Blended,” Africanist News and Views, November/December 1968, 8.

¹¹² Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, April 9, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹¹³ Jerusalem to Kinshasa, November 12, 1968, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹¹⁴ Ahmed G. Ibrahim, “The Crisis of Race Relations in South Africa,” Pakistan Horizon 21, no. 4 (1968): 332–36, here 332.

¹¹⁵ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, May 22, 1969, ISA 00071,706.81ED.7A.08, חצ-4169/31.

¹¹⁶ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, February 19, 1970, and March 4, 1970, ISA 00071,706.81D3.B7.26, חצ-4558/34.

¹¹⁷ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, March 26, 1970, ISA 00071,706.81D3.B7.26, חצ-4558/34.

¹¹⁸ Jerusalem to Lusaka, October 7, 1970, ISA 00071,706.81D3.B7.26, חצ-4558/34.

¹¹⁹ Dar es Salaam to Jerusalem, May 5, 1970, and October 29, 1970, ISA 00071,706.81D3.B7.26, חצ-4558/34.

¹²⁰ Jerusalem to Dar es Salaam, June 2, 1970, and July 5, 1970, ISA 00071706.821E.AD.18, חצ-4559/25.

¹²¹ Addis Ababa to Jerusalem, October 29, 1970, ISA 00071706.821E.AD.18, חצ-4559/25.

¹²² Addis Ababa to Jerusalem, October 19, 1970, ISA 00071,706.81D3.B7.26, חצ-4558/34. The original text was typed in capital letters for emphasis.

¹²³ Addis Ababa to Jerusalem, December 9, 1970; Jerusalem to Addis Ababa, December 21, 1970, 00071706.81.D3.B7.26, חצ-4558/34.

Additional information

Funding

The research presented in this article was made possible through financial assistance provided by the Gerda Henkel Stiftung and the Association for the Middle East and Africa (ASMEA).

Notes on contributors

Asher Lubotzky

Asher Lubotzky is the Israel Institute Teaching Fellow and Scholar in Residence in the Department of Political Science at the University of Houston. He wrote his Ph.D. dissertation, “Before the Apartheid Analogy: South African Radicals and Israel, 1948-1976,” at Indiana University. Dr. Lubotzky’s scholarship focuses on Africa-Israel relations, Jews in Africa, Israel’s foreign affairs and global image, and international interpretations of Zionism.