![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
Abstract
In the states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), development has led to social, economic, political, and cultural changes. These changes pose challenges and threats to the region's archaeology. This paper emphasises the relationship between archaeology and development in the GCC states. This paper illustrates the ways in which development is changing the region's historic environment and the consequences of these changes on the preservation, conservation, and management of the Gulf's archaeological heritage. It considers the history of archaeological research in the Gulf region and the consequences of oil wealth for the Gulf states’ political, socio-economic, and educational progress. It examines the Gulf governments' attempts to strike a balance between archaeology and development and explores the future of the past in the region.
Notes
1 See, for example, Redman, “Archaeology and Development”, Journal of Planning and Environment Law (Feb. 1990), pp. 87–98; Scrase, “Archaeology and Planning: A Case for Full Integration”, Journal of Planning and Environment Law (Dec. 1991), pp. 1103–12; Wainwright, “The Management of Change: Archaeology and Planning”, Antiquity 67 (1993), pp. 416–21; Marliac, “Archaeology and Development: A Difficult Dialogue”, International Journal of Historical Archaeology 1.4 (1997), pp. 323–37; Bandarin, Hosagrahar, and Albernaz, “Why Development Needs Culture”, Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development 1.1 (2011), pp. 15–25; Roders and van Oers, “Editorial: Bridging Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Development”, Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development 1.1 (2011), pp. 5–14.
2 See, for example, English Heritage, Managing the Urban Archaeological Resource (1992); Macinnes, “Archaeology as Land Use”, Archaeological Resource Management in the UK: An Introduction, eds Hunter and Ralston (1993), pp. 243–55; Dalglish, et al., Historic Govan: Archaeology and Development (2009).
3 Examples of these are: Potts, “The Gulf Arab States and Their Archaeology”, Archaeology Under Fire, ed. Meskell (1998), pp. 189–99; Blau, “Observing the Present, Reflecting the Past: Attitudes Towards Archaeology in the United Arab Emirates”, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 6.2 (1995), pp. 116–28; Al-Belushi, “The Heritage Prospective and Urban Expansion in Capital Cities: Old Defence Sites in Muscat, Oman”, Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture XIII, ed. Brebbia (2013), pp. 551–62.
4 Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource: Historical Perspectives”, Public Archaeology 7.3 (2008), pp. 149–173.
5 For more detail see, Meskell, “Archaeology Matters”, Archaeology Under Fire, ed. Meskell (1998), pp. 1–12; Hassan, “Memorabilia: Archaeological Materiality and National Identity in Egypt”, Archaeology Under Fire, ed. Meskell (1998), pp. 200–16; Bahrani, “Conjuring Mesopotamia: Imaginative Geography and a World Past”, Archaeology Under Fire, ed. Meskell (1998), pp. 159–74.
6 Vincent, Horsley and Wales, The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates (1797).
7 To know more about the history of the East India Company see, Lawson, The East India Company: A History (2014).
8 For more on the development of Western knowledge concerning the Arabian peninsula see, Hogarth, The Penetration of Arabia: A Record of the Development of Western Knowledge Concerning the Arabian Peninsula (2011).
9 The Portuguese domination for the Arabian Gulf extended from 1507 to 1650 [Miles, The Countries and Tribes of the Persian Gulf (1919, repr. 1994), p. 196].
10 The Ottomans occupied parts of the Arabian Peninsula during the period from 1517 to 1918 with fluctuating strengths and weaknesses of their central authority [Bowen, The History of Saudi Arabia (2008), p. 68].
11 The British East India Company was founded in 1600 and ceased in 1858. For more about the history of the British East India Company see, Lawson, The East India Company: A History (2014).
12 The Dutch East Indies Company was founded in 1602 and ceased in 1798. For more about the history of the Dutch East India Company see, Gaastra, The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline (2003).
13 Potts, The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity (1990).
14 A considerable amount of literature has been published about the early observations on the environment and culture of the Arabian Peninsula. Examples of these, in chronological order, are: Wellsted, Travels in Arabia, 2 vols (1838); Haines, “Memoir of the South and East Coasts of Arabia: Part II”, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London (1845), pp. 104–60; Palgrave, Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia, 1862–1863, 2 vols (1865–6); Lorimer, Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf: Oman and Central Arabia, 2 vols (1908, 1915); Miles, The Countries and Tribes of the Persian Gulf (1919); Philby, The Heart of Arabia: A Record of Travel & Exploration (1922); Cox, “Some Excursions in Oman”, Geographical Journal 66.3 (Sept. 1925), pp. 193–221; Lees, “The Geology and Tectonics of Oman and of Parts of South-Eastern Arabia”, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 84.1–4 (1928), pp. 585–670; Philby, The Empty Quarter: Being a Description of the Great South Desert of Arabia Known as Rub‘al Khali (1933).
15 The history of these surveys and excavations was summarised by, Ibrahim, Excavations of the Arab Expedition at Sār El-Jisr, Bahrain (1982); Rice (ed.), Dilmun Discovered: The Early Years of Archaeology in Bahrain (1983); Potts (ed.), Dilmun: New Studies in the Archaeology and Early History of Bahrain (1983); Al Khalifa and Rice (eds), Bahrain Through the Ages: The Archaeology (1986); Frifelt, “Burial Mounds Near Ali Excavated by the Danish Expedition”, Bahrain through the Ages: The Archaeology, eds Al Khalifa and Rice (1986), pp. 125–34; Crawford, Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours (1998); MacLean and Insoll, An Archaeological Guide to Bahrain (2011).
16 Durand, “Extracts from Report on the Islands and Antiquities of Bahrain”, Journal of Royal Asian Society 12 (1880), pp. 1–13.
17 Bent, “The Bahrain Islands in the Persian Gulf”, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society 12 (1890), pp. 1–19; Bent, Southern Arabia (1994).
18 Prideaux, “The Sepulchral Tumuli of Bahrain”, Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report 1908–1909 (1912), pp. 60–78.
19 Mackay, Harding, and Petrie (eds), Bahrain and Hamamieh (1929).
20 Cornwall, “On the Location of Dilmun”, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 103 (1946), pp. 3–11; Cornwall, “The Tumuli of Bahrain”, Asia and the Americas 42 (1943), pp. 230–34.
21 Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia: Comprehending an Account of Those Territories in Hedjaz which the Mohammedans Regard as Sacred (1829).
22 Burton, A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El-Madinah and Mecca, 3 vols (1855–6).
23 Wellsted, Travels in Arabia, 2 vols (1838).
24 Palgrave, Narrative of a Year's Journey.
25 Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 1875–77 (1888).
26 Huber, Journal d'un voyage en Arabie, 1883–4 (1891).
27 Dougherty, “A Babylonian City in Arabia”, American Journal of Archaeology 34.3 (1930), pp. 296–312.
28 Thomas, Alarms and Excursions in Arabia (1931); Thomas, Arabia Felix: Across the “Empty Quarter” of Arabia (1932).
29 Philby, The Empty Quarter.
30 Albright, The American Archaeological Expedition in Dhofar, Oman, 1952–1953 (1982); Albright, “Explorations in Dhofar, Oman”, Antiquity 29.113 (1982), pp. 37–39.
31 Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource”, pp. 152–3.
32 Albright, The American Archaeological Expedition in Dhofar, Oman, 1952–1953 (1982).
33 Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource”, p. 153.
34 Potts, “The Gulf Arab States and Their Archaeology”, p. 191.
35 Bibby, Looking For Dilmun (1969); Glob, Al-Bahrain (1968).
36 Bibby, “Arabiens Arkaeologi / Arabian Gulf Archaeology”, Kuml (1964), pp. 86–111; Bibby, “Arabiens Arkaeologi / Arabian Gulf Archaeology”, Kuml (1965), pp. 133–52; Bibby, “Arabiens Arkaeologi / Arabian Gulf Archaeology”, Kuml (1966), pp. 75–96.
37 The notable examples of these studies are those published by Flemming Højlund, some of which are: Højlund, The Burial Mounds of Bahrain: Social Complexity in Early Dilmun (2007); Højlund, “Bitumen-Coated Basketry in Bahraini Burials”, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 6 (1995), pp. 100–02; Højlund, and Hellmuth, Qala'at al-Bahrain 1: The Northern City Wall and the Islamic Fortress (1994); Højlund, and Hellmuth, Qala'at al-Bahrain 2: The Central Monumental Buildings (1994); Højlund, et al., “Late Third Millennium Elite Burials in Bahrain”, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 19.2 (2008), pp. 144–55.
38 Potts, “The Gulf Arab States and Their Archaeology”, pp. 191–2.
39 Bibby, Looking for Dilmun (1969).
40 Potts, “The Gulf Arab States and Their Archaeology”, pp. 192.
41 Glob, Al-Bahrain (1968), p. 16.
42 Frifelt, “Archaeological Investigations in the Oman Peninsula: A Preliminary Report”, Kuml (1968), pp. 170–5.
43 The classic account of the expansion of archaeology in Eastern Arabia in the 1950s–60s is Bibby, Looking For Dilmun (1969).
44 Department of Antiquities and Museums, An Introduction to Saudi Arabian Antiquities (1975), p. 14.
45 Bahrain National Museum, Bahrain National Museum (2012).
46 Al-Ain National Museum, History (2012).
47 Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource”, p. 157.
48 Qatar National Museum, “Qatar National Museum” (2012).
49 Kuwait Information Office in India, “The National Museum”(2012).
50 Al-Belushi, “University and Heritage in the Arabian Gulf Countries”, Human Studies Journal (2014), p. 148–9.
51 Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource”, p. 149.
52 Noteworthy studies include, Potts, “The Gulf Arab States and Their Archaeology”; Rice, The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf c.5000–323 BC (1994); Blau, “Observing the Present, Reflecting the Past”; Blau, “Conscious receivers: a discussion of museums and the construction of national identity in the United Arab Emirates”, Archaeology in the United Arab Emirates: Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Archaeology of the UAE, eds Potts, Al Naboodah, and Hellyer (2003), pp. 24–30; Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource”, pp. 149–73.
53 For instance, many archaeological sites in these countries have negatively been affected by the oil industry.
54 Szuchman, “Protecting Archaeological Heritage in an ‘Oasis of Stability’: Potential Threats to the Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates”, Forum Archaeologiae 55.6 (2010).
55 This prohibition can be seen clearly in the following provisions: Article 6 of the Bahraini law [Bahrain Decree Law 11/1995, “The Archaeological Protection Law of Bahrain”, Official Gazette (1995)]; Article 11 of the Kuwaiti law [Kuwait Prince's Decree 11/1960, “The Law of Antiquities of Kuwait”, Official Gazette (1960)]; Articles 4, 9, 12, 45 and 47 of the Omani law [Omani Royal Decree 6/1980, “The Omani National Heritage Protection Law”, Official Gazette (1980)]; Article 7 of the Qatari law [Qatar Emiri Decree 2/1980, “The Archaeology Law of Qatar”, Official Gazette (1980)]; Article 11 of the Saudi archaeological legal system [Saudi King's Decree 26/1971, “The Archaeological Legal System of Saudi Arabia”, Official Gazette (1971)]; Articles 6 and 9 of the Sharjah Emirate law [Sharjah Decree Law 1/1992, “Archaeological Law of Sharjah Emirate”, Official Gazette (1992)].
56 This control can be seen clearly in the following provisions: Articles 7 and 8 of the Bahraini law; Article 14 and 15 of the Kuwaiti law; Articles 10, 45, and 47 of the Omani law; Article 17 of the Qatari law; Articles 12, 13, 14, 17 and 23 of the Saudi archaeological legal system; Article 24 of the Sharjah Emirate law.
57 Al-Belushi, “Archaeological Legislation in the Sultanate of Oman”, International Journal of Heritage Studies 20.1 (2014), pp. 45–6.
58 UNESCO, “Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention 1954” (2014).
59 UNESCO, “The 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property” (2014).
60 UNESCO, “The 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, UNESCO, Paris” (2014).
61 UNESCO, “World Heritage List” (2014).
62 UNESCO, “Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: State Parties” (2014).
63 UNESCO, “The Potential of the Gulf's Underwater Heritage Surfaced” (2012).
64 Al-Belushi, “Archaeological Legislation in the Sultanate of Oman”, pp. 36–53.
65 Ibid.
66 Al-Belushi, “The Heritage Prospective and Urban Expansion in Capital Cities: Old Defence Sites in Muscat, Oman”, p. 555.
67 Al-Hathloul, “Planning in the Middle East, Moving Toward the Future”, Habitat International 28 (2004), p. 641.
68 Hamouche, “The Changing Morphology of the Gulf Cities in the Age of Globalisation: The Case of Bahrain”, Habitat International 28.4 (2004), p. 521.
69 Ben Hamouche believes that “the endogenous forces consist of the internal parameters within the community, such as the social structure, religious beliefs, the way of life and local resources (building materials, local know-how, etc.), whereas the exogenous forces comprise factors that act from beyond the community and intervene either with or without its consent, in shaping its built environment” [ibid., pp. 521–2].
70 Ibid., pp. 538–9.
71 Ibid., p. 521.
72 For more on the impact of globalisation on cities see, for example, Castells, “European Cities, the Informational Society, and the Global Economy”, European Cities: Changing Urban Structures in a Changing World 84.4 (1993), pp. 247–57; Short and Kim, Globalisation and the City (1999).
73 Hamouche, “The Changing Morphology of the Gulf Cities … ”, p. 521.
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid., pp. 538–9.
76 Mahgoub, “Globalization and the Built Environment in Kuwait”, Habitat International 28.4 (2004), p. 505.
77 Ibid.
78 Ibid.
79 Ibid.
80 Pacione, “Dubai: City Profile”, Cities 22.3 (2005), p. 255.
81 Nassar, Blackburn, and Whyatt, “Developing the Desert: The Pace and Process of Urban Growth in Dubai”, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 45 (2014), p. 58.
82 Ibid., p. 50.
83 Wiedmann, Salama, and Thierstein, “Urban Evolution of the City of Doha: An Investigation into the Impact of Economic Transformations on Urban Structures”, Journal of the Faculty of Architecture 29.2 (2012), p. 35.
84 Ibid.
85 Ibid., p. 36.
86 Ibid., p. 42.
87 Ibid., p. 44.
88 Ibid., p. 46.
89 Ibid., p. 51.
90 Al-Belushi, “The Heritage Prospective and Urban Expansion in Capital Cities: Old Defence Sites in Muscat, Oman”, p. 555.
91 Ibid.
92 Ministry of National Economy, “The 2010 Oman Census Summary” (2012).
93 Ibid.
94 Al-Belushi, “The Heritage Prospective and Urban Expansion in Capital Cities: Old Defence Sites in Muscat, Oman”, p. 555.
95 Ibid.
96 Damluji, The Architecture of Oman (1998).
97 Al-Belushi, “The Heritage Prospective and Urban Expansion in Capital Cities: Old Defence Sites in Muscat, Oman”, pp. 557–8.
98 Ibid., p. 552.
99 Saleh, “Learning from Tradition: The Planning of Residential Neighborhoods in a Changing World”, Habitat International 28.4 (2004), p. 625.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid.
102 Hamouche, “The Changing Morphology of the Gulf Cities … ”, p. 528.
103 Ibrahim, Al-Awamel al-Mushakila lil Emara al-Arabia fi al-Mashriq al-Arabi (1985) cited in Mahgoub, “Globalization and the Built Environment in Kuwait”, p. 511.
104 Mahgoub, “Globalization and the Built Environment in Kuwait” (2004), p. 511.
105 An exception to this is the building of the Royal Opera House Muscat, which reflects the local architectural heritage of the place.
106 Hamouche, “The Changing Morphology of the Gulf Cities … ”, p. 534.
107 Ibid.
108 Silva, “Preserving Historic Urban Districts: Issues of Culture Change, Stress, and Culture-Supportiveness”, Environmental Design Research Association 32nd Conference (2001), p. 18, cited in Mahgoub, “Globalization and the Built Environment in Kuwait”, p. 511.
109 Ibrahim, Excavations of the Arab (1982).
110 Ibrahim and ElMahi, “A Survey Between Quriyat and Sur in the Sultanate of Oman (1997)”, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 30 (2000) pp. 119–36.
111 ElMahi and Ibrahim, “Two Seasons of Investigations at Manal Site in the Wadi Samayil Area, Sultanate of Oman”, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 33 (2003), pp. 77–98.
112 Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey (ADIAS), New Archaeological Discoveries in Fujairah and Ras Al Khaimah (2014).
113 Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource”, p. 162.
114 Ibid., p. 167.
115 For details on this project see: Beech, Kallweit, and Hellyer, “New Archaeological Investigations at Abu Dhabi Airport, United Arab Emirates”, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 34 (2004), pp. 1–15; De Cardi, “Third Millennium and Later Pottery from Abu Dhabi Airport”, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 8 (1997), pp. 161–73; Kallweit, “Lithics from the Emirates: the Abu Dhabi Airport Sites”, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 34 (2004), pp. 139–45.
116 Beech, Kallweit, and Hellyer, “New Archaeological Investigations at Abu Dhabi Airport, United Arab Emirates”, pp. 1–15.
117 SGS Environment, The Oman LNG Project. The Al Ghalilah LNG Plant Site, Supplementary Environmental Studies: Archaeological Survey and Assessment (1995); SGS Environment, The Oman LNG Project. The Al Ghalilah LNG Plant Site: Environmental Statement (1995); SGS Environment, The Oman LNG Project. Environmental Baseline Statement for the Al Ghalilah LNG Plant Site (1995); SGS Environment, The Oman LNG Project. The Al Ghalilah LNG Plant Site, Archaeology: Detailed Survey and Trial Excavations, April/May 1996 (1996); SGS Environment, The Oman LNG Project. Accommodation Site: Archaeological Assessment (1996).
118 Al-Belushi and ElMahi, “Excavation of the Bawsher Site 2006: The Role of Natural Resources in the Establishment of the Settlement”, Adumatu 18 (2008), pp. 7–40.
119 It is expected that the Ministry of Tourism will soon operate another thirty-one fortifications after finishing their restoration by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture [personal communication, Saif Al-Rawahi, Ministry of Tourism, Oman, 19 June 2014].
120 Al-Belushi, “Accessibility to the Historic Defence Sites of Oman for People with Mobility Impairment: The Cases of Nakhal, Al Hazm and Khasab Fortifications”, Proceeding of the 2nd International Conference on Defence Sites: Heritage and Future (2014), p. 296.
121 Ibid.
122 Bandarin, Hosagrahar, and Albernaz, “Why Development Needs Culture”, p. 20.
123 Al-Belushi, “Managing Oman's Archaeological Resource”, p. 157.
124 In order to reactivate it, this department announced it would be offering an MA programme in archaeology starting in the 2013–14 academic year. However, the programme has yet to start (as of May 2015).
125 Potts, “The Gulf Arab States and Their Archaeology”, p. 197.
126 For more on language and identity in the GCC states see Holes, “Language and Identity in the Arabian Gulf”, Journal of Arabian Studies 1.2 (2011), pp. 129–45.
127 Insoll, “Changing Identities in the Arabian Gulf: Archaeology, Religion, and Ethnicity in Context”, The Archaeology of Plural and Changing Identities, ed. Casella and Fowler (2005), p. 19.
128 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Intellectual Property Needs and Expectations of Traditional Knowledge Holders: WIPO Report on Fact-finding Missions on Intellectual Property and Traditional Knowledge (1998–1999), vol. 768 (2001), p. 163.
129 This Convention was adopted at Paris, 17 Oct. 2003 and entered into force on 20 Apr. 2006 [UNESCO, “The 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, UNESCO, Paris” (2014)].
130 UNESCO, “Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage and Register of Best Safeguarding Practices” (2014).
131 Avrami, “Book Review” [review of Cultural Heritage and Development in the Arab World, ed. Hassan, de Trafford, and Youssef], in International Journal of Cultural Property 20 (2013), p. 350.
132 Al-Belushi, “The Archaeological Records of Oman: The Challenge of Information Management”, College of Arts & Social Sciences Journal 2 (2011), pp. 6–8; Al-Belushi, “A Proposed National Archaeological Database of Oman”, Adumatu 26 (2012), pp. 7–8; Al-Belushi, “Characteristics of Oman's Archaeological Resource: A Preliminary Review of Management Prospects”, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 25 (2014), p. 121.
133 Al-Belushi, “The Archaeological Records of Oman: The Challenge of Information Management”, pp. 5–19.
134 Bandarin, Hosagrahar, and Albernaz, “Why Development Needs Culture”, p. 19.
135 For more on this issue see, for example, McGimsey, Public Archeology (1972); Schiffer and Gumerman, Conservation Archaeology: A Guide for Cultural Resource Management Studies (1977); Hunter and Ralston (eds), Archaeological Resource Management in the UK: An Introduction (1997); Carman, Archaeology and Heritage: An Introduction (2002).