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Abstract
This paper explores the effects of human disturbances associated with mine development in the Arctic on habitat and populations of reindeer/caribou (both Rangifer tarandus), and implications for reindeer husbandry and caribou hunting of indigenous Sami people in Sweden and First Nations in Canada. Through three case studies, we illustrate how Cree and Naskapi communities develop community-based geospatial information tools to collect field data on caribou migration and habitat changes, and how Sami reindeer herders use GIS to gather information about reindeer husbandry to better communicate impacts of mining on reindeer grazing areas. Findings indicate impacts on the use of disturbed habitat by reindeer/caribou, on migration routes, and northern livelihoods. The three cases present novel methods for community-based environmental monitoring, with applications in hazards mapping and denote the active engagement of indigenous communities in polar environmental assessments, generating community-oriented data for land use management decisions. They also illustrate how technology can lead to better communication and its role for empowerment.
Acknowledgements
OURANOS, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, the Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Le Groupe Hémisphère and TaTa Steel (New Millennium Iron Corp. “NML”) kindly provided funding for the ‘Naskapi Climate Change and Caribou Project’ and Thora Herrmann’s and Natalie D’Astous’ work. Financial funding for Per Sandström’s work was provided by Swedish Research Council Formas through the PLURAL project. Karin Granqvist is grateful to the Department of Philosophy and History of Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, for financial support. We thank Marc Girard for his contribution to this paper.
Notes
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2 Simberloff, “Flagships, Umbrellas, and Key-stones: Is Single-species Management Passé in the Landscape Era?,” 1998; Taillon et al., “Shifting Targets in the Tundra: Protection of Migratory Caribou Calving Grounds must Account for Spatial Changes Over Time,” 2012.
3 Kofinas et al., “Research Planning in the Face of Change: The Human Role in Reindeer/Caribou Systems,” 2000; Kofinas and Russel, “North America,” 2004; Hummel and Ray, Caribou and the North (2008); Vistnes et al., Reindeer Husbandry and Barents 2030 (2009).
4 Vors and Boyce, “Global Declines of Caribou and Reindeer,” 2009; Festa-Bianchet et al., “Caribou Conservation in Canada: An Uncertain Future,” 2011.
5 Klein, “Arctic Grazing Systems and Industrial Development,” 2000.
6 Dyer et al., “Avoidance of Industrial Development by Woodland Caribou,” 2001; Weladji and Forbes, “Disturbance Effects of Human Activities on Rangifer tarandus Habitat,” 2002; Weir et al., “Effects on Mine Development on Woodland Caribou, Rangifer tarandus, Distribution,” 2007.
7 Skogland and Grøvan, “The Effects of Human Disturbance on the Activity of Wild Reindeer in Different Physical Condition,” 1988; Cameron et al., “Redistribution of Calving Caribou in Response to Oil Field Development on the Arctic Slope of Alaska,” 1992; Bradshaw et al., “Effects of Petroleum Exploration on Woodland Caribou in Northeastern Alberta,” 1997; Dyer et al., “Quantifying Barrier Effects of Roads and Seismic Lines on Movements of Female Woodland Caribou in Northeastern Alberta,” 2002; Nellemann et al., “Progressive Impact of Piecemeal Infrastructure Development on Wild Reindeer,” 2003; Weir et al., “Effects on Mine Development on Woodland caribou, Rangifer tarandus, Distribution,” 2007; Skarin, Sammanställning av forskning gällande störningar på ren – med perspektiv på etableringar av vindkraft i renskötselområdet, 2012.
8 Vistnes et al., “Effects of Infrastructure on Migration and Range Use of Wild Reindeer,” 2004; Kneeshaw et al., “Road Rash,” 2010.
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10 Cronin et al. 1998; Vistnes and Nelleman 2001; Haskell et al. 2006; Taillon et al. 2012.
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13 James and Stuart-Smith 2000; Wittmer et al. 2007.
14 Sandström et al. 2003; Forbes et al. 2009; Peoples of Aklavik 2009; Royer and Herrmann 2011; Les Amis du Mushuau-nipi 2012; Ungava 2013; Facebook groups: What local people – För ett gruvfritt Sápmi; Gruvfritt Jokkmokk; Urbergsgruppen.
15 Courtois et al. 2003.
16 Ibid.; Schaefer 2003; Hins 2009.
17 COSEWIC 2006; MRNF 2007.
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19 Couturier et al. 2010
20 Porter 2011; MRN 2012.
21 Taillon et al. 2012.
22 Speck 1935; Morantz 1979; Feit 1982; Scott 1986
23 GCC 2012.
24 Tanner 1983.
25 Carlson 2008.
26 Speck 1935; Marquis 2009.
27 Delaporte and Roué 1986; Forbes et al. 2006; Tyler et al. 2007; Rees et al. 2008; Bostedt and Lundgren 2010.
28 Sandström et al. 2014.
29 Wik Karlsson, Petition, April 5, 2012; Wik Karlsson, Petition, January 11, 2012.
30 Persson and Lauritz, Decision no. BS 40-1658-2011, BS-40-26-2012.
31 Eriksson, June 26, 2012.
32 Boman 2012; Eriksson, April 24, 2013; Lindgren 2013.
33 Vikström 2013.
34 The Washington Post, 2013; Zerpe and Westin 2013.
35 Norrbotten undersökningstillstånd; Norrbotten koncessionslicenser; Västerbotten undersökningstillstånd; Västerbotten koncessionslicenser 2013.
36 The Swedish Government 2013; Rehnfjell 2013; Abresparr 2013.
37 Quebec 2011; Following elections in September 2012, the Quebec Liberal Party was replaced by the Parti québécois at the head of the province. The Parti québécois did not entirely reject the Plan Nord, but rather made minor changes to it, and changed its name for “Le Nord pour tous” (North for all).
38 Quebec 2011.
39 Asselin 2011.
40 Bradbury 1984.
41 Schiller 2011.
42 Storey 2011.
43 Schiller 2011.
44 Uprety et al. 2012.
45 Dhital et al. 2013.
46 Germain and Asselin 2010; Herrmann et al. 2012; Jacqmain et al. 2012.
47 Kofinas et al. 2002.
48 Parlee and Manseau 2005; Gordon et al. 2008; Herrmann et al. 2012; Gearheard et al. 2011.
49 Moller et al. 2004; Berkes et al. 2007; Dyck 2007; Sandström et al. 2012; Uprety et al. 2012.
50 Lefler 2010.
51 Sandström et al. 2003; Jougda et al. 2011.
52 Ibid.
53 Chapin et al. 2005; Dove 2006; Green 2008.
54 CyberTracker Software Ltd, http://www.cybertracker.org
55 Laurian et al. 2012; Rudolph et al. 2012; Leblond et al. 2013.
56 Boulanger et al. 2012.
57 Wolfe et al. 2000; Vistnes and Nelleman 2001; Haskell et al. 2006; Reimers et al. 2007.
58 NNK 2012.
59 Nelleman et al. 2003.
60 NNK 2012.
61 Ibid.
62 Royer and Herrmann 2011.
63 NNK 2012.
64 Taillon et al. 2012.
65 Chapin et al. 2005.
66 McCall and Minang 2005.