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Abstract
Previous studies have argued that domestic factors, including each state’s Arctic state identities, may explain why some Western states (e.g. Canada) have been more critical of Russia in the Arctic than others (e.g. Norway). The present study analyses part of the link between Arctic state identities and foreign policy by showing that these identifications affected domestic media discourses about the Arctic in Canada and Norway during the first years (2014–2016) of the Crisis. Canada’s territorial identification made it difficult for the newly elected Trudeau government to push for a less assertive course vis-à-vis Russia. In Norway, the strong economic discourse coloured early debates about the crisis, but after the widening of economic sanctions against Russia in the summer of 2014, territorial discourses played a more important role. The article thus illustrates that Arctic state identities shape media debates, but that the identifications themselves can change. In general, the article advocates for a comparative approach towards the analysis of Arctic state identities.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the participants at a seminar held at the University of Southern Denmark and Polar Journal’s anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions and comments during the development of this paper. The authors are also grateful for the help and insights provided by Arctic civil servants in 2016 and 2017 while researching the article. Lastly, the authors would like to acknowledge the generous support of their funding body, the Carlsberg Foundation, for supporting this research.
Notes
1 Klimenko, Russia’s Arctic Security Policy; Rahbek-Clemmensen, “The Ukraine Crisis Moves North”; Pezard and others, Maintaining Arctic Cooperation; Konyshev and others, “Russia’s Arctic Strategies.”
2 Käpylä and Mikkola, “On Arctic Exceptionalism”; Westdal, “A Way Ahead with Russia.”
3 Bob Weber, “Canada to Bring up Russia’s Military Actions in Ukraine at Arctic Council Meeting.” CBC. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/canada-s-turn-as-arctic-council-head-to-end-at-iqaluit-meeting-kerry-takes-over-1.3039509.
4 Rahbek-Clemmensen, “The Ukraine Crisis Moves North.”
5 E. g. Dodds, “We are a Northern Country”; Genest and Lasserre, “Souveraineté, Sécurité, Identité”; Grant, “Arctic Wilderness”; Shadian, “In Search of an Identity Canada Looks North”; Grant, “Myths of the North”; Grant, Polar Imperative; Grace, Canada and the Idea of the North; Burke, International Disputes.
6 E. g. Gad, National Identity Politics.
7 E. g. Dodds and Ingimundarson, “Territorial Nationalism and Arctic Geopolitics”.
8 E. g. Jensen, International Relations in the Arctic; Medby, “Arctic State, Arctic Nation?”
9 E. g. Hønneland, Russia and the Arctic; Laruelle, Russia’s Arctic Strategies.
10 E.g. Greaves, “Constructing In/Security”; Greaves, “Arctic (In)Security”; Greaves, “Thinking Critically”; Bergh, Arctic Policies; Medby, “Peopling the State”; Jensen and Skedsmo, “Approaching the North.”
11 Steinberg and others, Contesting the Arctic, 15, 16 and 27.
12 Medby, “Peopling the State,” 12–19.
13 Ibid., 193–97.
14 Hønneland, Russia and the Arctic, 8–14.
15 Hønneland, Russia and the Arctic, 8.
16 Wæver, “Identity, Communities, and Foreign Policy,” 41; Hansen, Security as Practice, 74–82.
17 Wæver, “Identity, Communities, and Foreign Policy,” 41.
18 Möller, “Photographic Interventions”; Williams, “Words, Images, Enemies”; Hansen, “Theorising the Image.”
19 Buzan et al., Security.
20 Greaves, “Constructing In/Security.”
21 Albert and Buzan, “Securization,” 415–22.
22 Hønneland, Russia and the Arctic; Jensen, International Relations in the Arctic; Kristensen and Rahbek-Clemmensen, “Greenlandic Sovereignty.”
23 Hall and Hall 2003, “Key Concepts,” 154; See also Kaplan, “Two Nations in Search of a State,” 585.
24 Buzan et al., Security, 95–9.
25 Ibid., 71–94.
26 Jensen, “Petroleum Discourses.”
27 Shadian, Politics of Arctic Sovereignty, 105; Burke, “Canada’s Arctic Identification”; Greaves, “Arctic (In)Security.”
28 Fairclough and Wodak, “Critical Discourse Analysis,” 258. See also Jørgensen and Philips, Discourse Analysis, 60–76.
29 Wæver, “Identity, Communities, and Foreign Policy,” 26–33.
30 Burke, International Disputes.
31 Head and Trudeau. The Canadian Way, 27; Bergh, Arctic Policies.
32 Burke, Nuanced Perceptions, 28.
33 See e.g. Charlie Gillis. “Who owns the North Pole? We used to Think it was ours. But Russia has Staked a Claim, and the Danes will be Next.” MacLean’s. http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/who-owns-the-north-pole/; Ed Struzik. “Who’s Guarding Our Back Door?” The Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/2007/11/18/whos_guarding_our_back_door.html; Canwest News Service. “Russians Plant a Flag Right under our Frosty Feet.” http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=72502de3-22a2-4bce-91c7-68e89b592ad1.
35 Steinberg et al., Contesting the Arctic, 24–31.
36 Bob Weber, “Canada’s Sudden North Pole Claim Surprised Government Officials, Internal Emails Suggest.” National Post. http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/canadas-sudden-north-pole-claim-surprised-government-officials-internal-emails-suggest.
37 See e.g. Max Paris. “Canada’s Claim to Arctic Riches includes the North Pole.” CBC News. http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-s-claim-to-arctic-riches-includes-the-north-pole-1.2456773.
38 The Voice of Russia, “Canada Vows to protect Santa Claus from Russia.” http://sputniknews.com/voiceofrussia/news/2013_12_12/Russia-fires-back-at-Canadas-Arctic-claims-5223/.
39 Laura Payton, “Justin Trudeau Defends Performance as 2013 Draws to a Close.” CBC News. http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/justin-trudeau-defends-performance-as-2013-draws-to-close-1.2460445.
40 Burke, International Disputes; Meren and Plumptre, “Rights of Passage.”
41 Burke, “Leading by Example.”
42 Greaves, “Thinking Critically.”
43 Dodds, “We are a Northern Country.”
44 Greaves, “Thinking Critically.”
45 Government of Canada, Improving and Devolving Northern Governance.
46 The National Post, “High Court gives Red Light for Clyde River but Green Light for Line 9 Pipeline.” http://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/canada-news-pmn/canadian-press-news-alert-supreme-court-rules-neb-can-fulfil-duty-to-consult-2/wcm/31e620af-1983-40bf-9587-9429598b74ba.
47 Medby, “Arctic State, Arctic Nation?” 255. See also Drivenes and Jølle, Into the Ice.
48 Leira et al., Norske Selvbilder, 28; Eriksen and Neumann, “Fra Slektsgård Til Oljeplattform.”
49 Hønneland, Russia and the Arctic, 71–5; Pharand, Canada’s Arctic Waters, 67; Sergunin, “Russian Approaches,” 10–11.
50 Pedersen, “The Dynamics of Svalbard Diplomacy”; Pedersen, “Norway’s Rule on Svalbard.”
51 Jensen, “Petroleum Discourses”; Jensen, International Relations in the Arctic.
53 Sale and Potapov, “Scramble for the Arctic,” 45; Greaves, “Arctic (In)Security.”
54 Pedersen, “The Dynamics of Svalbard Diplomacy”; Pedersen, “Norway’s Rule on Svalbard.”
55 Hønneland, Russia and the Arctic, 71–102; Henriksen and Ulfstein, “Maritime Delimitation in the Arctic”; Sergunin, “Russian Approaches,” 10–13.
56 See e.g. Aftenposten, “En Historisk Overraskelse”, April 28, 2010; Nordlys, “Et Sus av Evighet”, April 28, 2010; Johan Willian Von Hanno Brockfield, “Statoil: – Historisk Begivenhet.” Aftenposten, April 28, 2010; Halvor Tjønn, “Avtaken Rettslig Forsvarlig.” Aftenposten, April 28, 2010; Kjell Dragnes, “Et Nytt Kapittel.” Aftenposten, April 28, 2010; Hans Petter Sjøli. “Historisk.” Klassekampen, April 28, 2010.
57 Åtland and Bruusgaard, “When Security Acts Misfire.”
58 Aftenposten, “Politisk Bris i Barentshavet.” October 19, 2005. See also Kjell Dragnes, “Grenseløse Utfordringer.” Aftenposten, October 20, 2005; Hans Kr. Amundsen, “Uryddig Hav.” Nordlys, October 26, 2005; Johan P. Barlindhaug, “Petroleumsfrie Soner Kan Bli en Provokasjon.” Aftenposten, October 27, 2005.
59 Ivan Myklebust and Øystein Sundheim, “Når Skal Vi Sette Ned Foten?” Nordlys, October 21, 2005.
60 Eilif Skjervøy Johansen and Torleif Anderson. “Pirater og Frihetsberøvelse.” Nordlys, October 22, 2005.
61 See also Exner-Pirot, “Canada’s Arctic Council Chairmanship”.
62 The Globe and Mail “Hypocrisy, Nyet?” March 28, 2014, A10.
63 The Toronto Star, “PM Plays Cold Warrior in Conflict with Putin.” March 26, 2014, A1.
64 Michael Den Tandt. “Harper at his Best on Crimea File; Stood Up for the World and Drew a Line for Putin.” National Post, March 26, 2014.
65 Matthew Fisher, “Harper Berates Putin for ‘Lack of Respect’.” Edmonton Journal, March 26, 2014, A20.
66 Sharp, Trudeau and Canada’s Arctic Priorities; Levon Sevunts, “Search and Rescue and Surveillance Top Canada’s Arctic Defence Priorities.” Radio Canada International. http://www.rcinet.ca/en/2017/06/09/search-and-rescue-and-surveillance-top-canadas-arctic-defence-priorities/.
67 Westdal, “A Way Ahead with Russia,” 1; Lee Berthiaume, “Dion Sits Down for First Bilateral with Russian Foreign Minister in Years: Foreign Affairs Minister Meeting with Sergey Lavrov in Laos.” iPolitics. http://ipolitics.ca/2016/07/25/dion-sits-down-for-first-meeting-with-russian-foreign-minister-in-years/.
68 Pamela Goldsmith-Jones, “The Arctic Council at 20 Years: More Necessary than Ever.” September 29, 2016. The Government of Canada. https://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=1131189.
69 Prime Minister’s Office, United States-Canada Joint Arctic Leaders’ Statement; Westdal “A Way Ahead with Russia,” 1; Berthiaume. “Dion Sits Down for First Bilateral with Russian Foreign Minister in Years.”
70 See e.g. Bill Curry and Shawn McCarthy, “Canada Formally Abandons Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change.” The Globe and Mail, December 12, 2011. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/canada-formally-abandons-kyoto-protocol-on-climate-change/article4180809/.
71 Paul Wells. “Trudeau Channels Harper on Ukraine.” The Toronto Star, June 29, 2016, A7.
72 See e.g., Ivan Kristoffersen, “Europa Utfordrer Putin.” Nordlys, March 15, 2014; Rune Gjertin Rafaelsen, “Krim og Nordområdene.” Nordlys, March 15, 2014; Jan-Morten Bjørnbakk, “Norsk-Russisk Samkvem som Før.” Klassekampen, March 11, 2014.
73 See e.g. Bjørnbakk, “Norsk-Russisk Samkvem som Før”; Bengt Nielsen. “Ser Tegn på Kald Krig.” Nordlys, March 22, 2014.
74 Alf Ole Ask, “Advarer mot Putin i Nord.” Aftenposten, March 20, 2014.
75 See e.g. Nils Kristen Sandtrøen, “Vi Planlegger ikke for Uker eller Måneder, men for flere Tiår av Gangen.” Aftenposten, August 2, 2014.
76 See e.g. Ragnhild Stenvaagnes, Aksel Borgen, Øystein Kløvstad Langberg, and Steffen Pedersen Øberg, “Sikret Milliardavtale like før EU-Sanksjoner.” Aftenposten, August 1, 2014.
77 See e.g. Nils Tore Gjerde, “Få Russerne Ut.” Klassekampen, April 9, 2015; Bjørn Søderholm Jessheim, “Finnmarks Grense.” Nordlys, March 31, 2015; Øystein Steiro, “Planlegging på Etterskudd.” Klassekampen, March 17, 2015.
78 Øystein Solvang, “Invasjon i Øst-Finnmark: Forsvarets Scenario om Krig med Russland, Ifølge Forsvarskilder.” Nordlys, March 16, 2015.
79 Jessheim, “Finnmarks Grense.” See also, Ivan Kristoffersen,. “Pinlig Diplomatisk Trusselspråk.” Nordlys. March 24, 2015.
80 Jessheim, “Finnmarks Grense.”
81 Andreas Bakke Foss, “E-Sjefen: Russiske Styrker Har Fått Betydelig Bedret Reaksjonsevne.” Aftenposten, March 17, 2015. See also Lars Magne Hovtun. “Har Norge Grunn til å Frykte Russland?” Aftenposten. March 18, 2015.
82 See e.g., Bård Glad Pedersen. “Russland Skaper Usikkerhet i Europa.” Aftenposten. March 2, 2015.
83 See e.g., Per Anders Madsen. “Ny Uro i Nord.” Aftenposten, March 18, 2015; Andreas Bakke Foss. “E-Sjefen”; Sveinung Berg Bentzrød, “Russland er Annerledes mot Norge enn Andre Land.” Aftenposten, April 8, 2015; Sveinung Berg Bentzrød. “Både Russland og Vi Øver Fordi Vi er Mer Bekymret Enn Vi Var.” Aftenposten, March 18, 2015.
84 Andreas Bakke Foss. “E-sjefen.”
85 Bentzrød, “Russland er Annerledes Mot Norge Enn Andre Land.”
86 See e.g. Alf Ole Ask and Andreas Slettholm, “Putin Beordret Stor Militærøvelse i Nord.” Aftenposten. March 17, 2015.