A Historical Introduction to Minjung (Liberation) Buddhism: A South Korean Version of Radical Buddhism in the 1980s

Abstract

This essay provides a historical analysis of the South Korean Minjung (Liberation) Buddhist Movement during the turbulent 1980s. Heavily indebted to Marxism and other forms of socialism, as well as to Christian Liberation Theology, Minjung Buddhists had three major aims: anti-dictatorship, anti-imperialism, and reunification. The movement has been in decline since the early 1990s for three reasons: the economic and political collapse of the Eastern European Communist bloc and the Soviet Union; the election of a long-time opposition party leader, Kim Yeongsam, to the South Korean presidency in 1992; and the removal of the Jogye Order's pro-government and undemocratic administration in 1994. Although recent progressive Korean Buddhists do not use the term ‘Minjung Buddhism’, they have continued the basic spirit of Minjung Buddhism within various forms of Engaged Buddhism. While Minjung Buddhists were successful in accomplishing their two primary aims – opposing the dictatorship and rejecting the imperialism that supported it – they were unsuccessful in their third major goal, the reunification of Korea.

Notes on Contributor

Chanju Mun (ordination name: Seongwon) has taught Buddhism and Asian philosophy at the University of the West and University of Hawaii-Manoa, and is currently teaching Buddhism and Asian religions at Coastal Carolina University. In addition to numerous articles, he has published three monographs and edited seven serialized volumes on Buddhism, religion, and peace. He plans to edit additional volumes in this series and to compose several books on American Buddhism and modern Korean Buddhism in the near future.

Notes

¹This essay employs the ROK official Romanization system for transliteration of all the Korean words. Ordained Korean Buddhist names are usually used without reference to original family names, but sometimes with them or the surname Seok (Ch. Shi; Jp. Shaku), meaning monkhood (from Śākya, the clan name of the Buddha). Three articles on Minjung Buddhism are available in English: Chanju Mun, ‘A Historical Introduction to Minjung Buddhism (Korean Liberation Buddhism) in 1980s’, Kankoku Bukkyōgaku seminaa, 9 (2003), pp. 239–270; John Jorgensen, ‘Minjung Buddhism: History, Thought and Critique’ in Jin Y. Park (ed) Makers of Modern Korean Buddhism (Albany: SUNY Press, 2010), pp. 275–313; and Chanju Mun, ‘Buddhists’ Response to Emerging Trends: Minjung (Liberation) Buddhism’ in Athkandawaka Saddhajeewa and Athula Seneviratne (eds) Buddhism: For 2600 Years and Beyond (New York: New York Buddhist Vihara, 2011), pp. 239–281.

²See Hwang Pilho, ‘Haebang sinhak gwa Minjung bulgyo ui bigyo bunseok’ (Comparative Analysis of Liberation Theology and Minjung Buddhism) in Hwang Pilho (ed), Jonggyo cheolhakja ga bon Bulgyo (Buddhism Seen from the Perspective of a Philosopher of Religion) (Seoul: Minjok-sa, 1990), pp. 98–138; see also the bibliography in Go Jaesik (ed), Haebang sinhak ui jaejomyeong (Reexamination of Liberation Theology) (Seoul: Sagyeojeol, 1986), pp. 399–408.

³The Board of Education of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism (ed), Jogye jongsa: Geunhyeondae-pyeon (The History of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism: Modern and Present Periods) (Seoul: Jogye-jong chulpan-sa, 2001), pp. 303–304.

⁴See Im Dongju, ‘Bulgyo undong ui moseupdeul – Minjung bulgyo’ (Buddhist Movement Forms: Minjung Buddhism), Bulgyo sasang, 26 (January 1986), pp. 80–85; Bak Suil, ‘Indo bulgyo-sa e natanan minjung bulgyo ui heureum’ (Minjung Buddhist Movement in the History of Indian Buddhism), Seungga, 5 (February 1988), pp. 162–175; and Seok Mogu, ‘Minjung bulgyo undong ui i'nyeom gwa jeon'gae’ (The Ideas and Development of the Minjung Buddhist Movement), Silcheon bulgy, 4 (20 October 1987), pp. 25–46.

⁵See Jo Seongnyeol, ‘Bulgyo ui jeongchi gyeongjye sahoe sasang’ (Political, Economic, and Social Thoughts in Buddhism), Seungga, 5 (February 1988), pp. 48–59.

⁶See O Wonchil, ‘Sahoe-jeok silcheon euroseoui bulgyo’ (Buddhism as a Social Praxis), Dongguk sasang, 21 (1 January 1988), pp. 54–56.

⁷See Seok Beobu, ‘Bulgyo ui minjung-jeok jeon'gae’ (The Development of Buddhism for the Masses), Cheongnyeon yeorae, 1 (1981), p. 89; Bak, op. cit., pp. 162–163; and O, op. cit., pp. 56–59.

⁸See Seok Beopseong, ‘Bulgyo ui minjung-seong gwa minjung ui bulgyo-seong’ (The Masses for Buddhism and Buddhism for the Masses), originally included in the collection of the source materials in commemoration of the first anniversary of the national monastic conference held 7 September 1988 at Haein-sa Temple, in Silcheon bulgyo jeon'guk seungga-hoe (National Monastic Association for Praxis Buddhism) (ed), Han'guk hyeondae bulgyo undong-sa (The History of Modern Korean Buddhist Movements), vol. 1 (Paju: Haengwon, 1996), pp. 124–128; Seok Jinsang, ‘9.7. Haein-sa seungnyeo daehoe ui yeoksa-jeok uiui wa palsip nyeondae minjung bulgyo undong ui pyeongga wa jeonmang’ (The Historical Meaning of the 7 September 1987 Haein-sa Temple Massive Monastic Conference and an Evaluation and Prospect of the Minjung Buddhist Movement in 1980s)’ in Silcheon bulgyo jeon'guk seungga-hoe, op. cit., pp. 134–135; and Yeo Ikgu, Minjung bulgyo cheolhak (Minjung Buddhist Philosophy) (Seoul: Minjok-sa, 1988), pp. 231–237.

⁹See Bak, op. cit., pp. 133–170.

¹⁰See Choe Seokho, ‘Wonsi bulgyo ui hyeondae jeok jae-jomyeong’ (Contemporary Re-reflection in Primitive Buddhism) in Han'guk bulgyo sahoe gyoyugwon (The Institute for Korean Buddhist Education) (ed), Bulgyo sasang ui saeroun balgyeon (New Discovery of Buddhist Thought), vol. 1 (Seoul: Han'guk bulgyo sahoe gyoyuk-won, 1989), pp. 43–75.

¹¹See Bak, op. cit., pp. 162–175.

¹²Hong Saseong, ‘Minjung bulgyo undong ui pyeongga wa jeonmang’ (An Evaluation and Prospect of Minjung Buddhist Movement) in Seok Beopseong et al. (ed) Minjung bulgyo ui tamgu (Researches in Minjung Buddhism) (Seoul: Minjok-sa, 1989), p. 98.

¹³Original articles by Han Yongun and research papers on him by contemporary scholars on are included in Han Jongman (ed), Hyeondae Han'guk ui bulgyo sasang (Buddhist Thoughts in Contemporary Korea) (Seoul: Han'gil-sa, 1980).

¹⁴Dongguk daehakgyo seongnim-hoe (Monastic Alumni Association of Dongguk University) (ed), Han'guk bulgyo hyeondae-sa (The History of Modern Korean Buddhism) (Seoul: Sigong-sa, 1997), pp. 434–437.

¹⁵Kim Gwangsik, Uriga salaon han'guk bulgyo baengnyeon (Korean Buddhism during Recent 100 Years) (Seoul: Minjok-sa, 2000), pp. 157, 166.

¹⁶It bears noting that members of the Buddhist Association of Seoul National University had protested against the dictatorial government several years earlier in November 1974; ibid., p. 157.

¹⁷Dongguk daehakgyo seongnim-hoe, op. cit., pp. 434–437.

¹⁸After 1980, as acts of concrete protest against perceived American responsibility for the Gwangju massacre, some student activists burned, attacked or occupied several US cultural centers stationed in large cities, such as Gwangju, Busan, Daegu and Seoul. See Kim Namgyu, ‘8.15 haebang ihu bulgyo undong ui jeon'gae gwajeong’ (Development Process of Buddhist Movement after the 15 August 1945 Liberation from Japan), Dongguk sasang, 20 (1 January 1987), p. 85.

¹⁹See Choe Sangjae, ‘80 nyeondae sangbangi haksaeng undong e gwanhan pyeongga’ (The Evaluation on Student Democratisation Movement in the First Half of 1980s), Godae munhwa (Culture of Korea University), 24 (1984), pp. 210–217.

²⁰See Propagation Department of Central Sangha College, ‘Han'guk minjung bulgyo ui jeon'gae gwajeong – Gaehang ihu choegeun ggaji’ (The Development Process of Minjung Buddhism in Korea: The End of the Nineteenth Century to Recent Times), Seungga, 5 (February 1988), p. 194. According to the article, the most comprehensive association for progressive Christian leaders in South Korea, the Korean National Christian Conference (KNCC), received approximately 70% of its budget from Western nations, including the United States.

²¹See Board of Education of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism, op. cit., p. 255.

²²Propagation Department of Central Sangha College, op. cit., p. 195.

²³Kim Namgyu, op. cit., p. 86.

²⁴Dongguk daehakgyo seongnim-hoe, op. cit., pp. 254–257.

²⁵See Kim Jongchan, ‘Minjung bulgyo undong ui jeongae gwajeong’ (Development Process of Minjung Buddhist Movement), in Seok Beopseong et al., pp. 185–186.

²⁶Dongguk daehakgyo seongnim-hoe, op. cit., pp. 438–439.

²⁷See Seok Beobu, ‘Saeroun bulgyo undong euroseoui sawon-hwa undong’ (New Buddhist Movement for the Revitalization of Fundamental Roles of Temples), Cheongnyeon yeorae (August 1981).

²⁸Mok Jeongbae contends that MRTOR activists modeled Minjung temples on Vietnamese Buddhist socialism, but he does not explain the function of similar temples in Vietnam in any detail; see Mok, ‘Yeoksa pyeon’ (Part History) in Han'guk bulgyo chongnam wiwon-hoe (ed) Han'guk bulgyo chongnam (The Comprehensive Collection of Source Materials of Contemporary Korean Buddhism) (Seoul: Daehan bulgyo jinheung-won, 1993), p. 105.

²⁹See ibid., p. 105; and also Yi Jihyeon, ‘Dongnam Asia minjok juui wa bulgyo’ (Nationalism and Buddhism in Southeast Asia), Seungga, 5 (February 1988), pp. 203–214. I have not examined the extent to which the MRTOR movement was inspired by Jerrold L. Schecter's (b. 1933) The New Face of Buddha: Buddhism and Political Power in Southeast Asia (New York: Coward-McCann, 1967), translated into Korean by Seok Myeokjeong (Yeo Ikgu) and published just one year before the movement under the title Bulta ui sae eolgul (Seoul: Hanjin chulpan-sa, 1979).

³⁰Six harmonies refers to the six ways that Buddhists should harmonize with others – in their physical actions; verbal actions; intentions; ethical actions; views; and benefits.

³¹See Kim Jongchan, op. cit., p. 188.

³²Published by Minjok-sa in Seoul in 1981.

³³Published by Han'gil-sa in Seoul in 1981.

³⁴Yeo Ikgu's major works on Minjung Buddhism are Minjung bulgyo immun (Introduction to Minjung Buddhism) (Seoul: Pulbit, 1985) and Minjung bulgyo cheolhak (Minjung Buddhist Philosophy) (Seoul: Minjok-sa, 1988).

³⁵Seok Jinsang, op. cit., p. 138.

³⁶Ibid.

³⁷Hong Saseong, op. cit., p. 103.

³⁸The event attracted the attention from the public. Nearly all of the major daily newspapers dealt with the national level monastic conference of 7 September 1986. The monthly magazine Sin-donga dealt with the conference as one of the most striking 60 events in contemporary Korea in their January 1988 issue (pp. 328–333).

³⁹See Seok Beopdal, ‘Minjung bulgyo e daehan sigak’ (Perspectives on Minjung Buddhism), Bulgyo sinmun (Buddhist Newspaper) (28 October 1987). The conservative newspaper published by the Jogye Order dealt with the Minjung Buddhism as a special topic both in the 24 February and 3 March 1988 issues. In the progressive journal Minjung beopdang (Minjung Dharma Hall) 5 (1988), the progressives rejected the conservative argument and vindicated their use of violence.

⁴⁰See Seok Beopta (Sin Kwangsu), ‘Nambuk bulgyo gyoryu wa jeonmang’ (The Exchange of Buddhism between Two Koreas and its Prospect) in Han'guk bulgyo chongnam wiwon-hoe, op. cit., pp. 123–129; and ‘Gin'geup jeomgeom – Bulgyo-gye ui tong'il non'ui’ (Emergent Examination: Reunification Issue in the Buddhist Organizations) in the 22 June 1988 issue of the weekly newspaper Bulgyo sinmun. Kwangsu Sin, a US permanent resident, introduced North Korean Buddhism to English-language scholarship in his dissertation, ‘A Study of Buddhism in North Korea in the Late Twentieth Century: An Investigation of Juche Ideology and Traditional Buddhist Thought in Korea’ (PhD dissertation, Clayton University, 1996). I have examined the activities of Daewon Ki, a naturalized US citizen, and that of other Korean-American Buddhists towards reunification in ‘Venerable Daewon Ki and Peacemaking’, in Chanju Mun (ed), Mediators and Meditators: Buddhism and Peacemaking (Honolulu: Blue Pine, 2007), pp. v–xxv. Daewon Ki made the first visit to North Korea in 1988 as a South Korean monk and Seok Beopta also visited North Korea in 1989 one year after Daewon Ki's visit. I have not included Korean-American Buddhist activities for reunification in this essay because the activities were not closely related to the Minjung Buddhist movement.

⁴¹Chanju Mun, ‘Venerable Daewon Ki’, op. cit., pp. v–xxv.