The Gülen Movement and Surviving in Exile: The case of Australia

ABSTRACT

In 2010, cracks began to emerge in the tacit alliance between the ruling Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party in Turkey, AK Party) and the Gülen Movement (GM) and escalated into an all-out struggle in 2013. Following the failed 15 July coup in 2016, Erdoğan sought to eradicate the movement completely, seizing $11 billion in GM assets and purging over 150,000 people from all sectors, public and private. However, Erdoğan is aware that victory at home will not defeat the GM, as it operates in around 160 countries. As a result, he has put pressure on many nations to crackdown on the GM and their activities. While this approach has had some success in the Gulf Countries, Africa and South East Asia, it has been largely ineffective in the West, and Australia is no exception. Therefore, this paper will explore the Australian case and look at the factors behind continued local support for the GM. It will argue that the GM has made excellent use of opportunity spaces and structures in both academia and the NGO sector where it has been able to control its own narrative and engage effectively in cultural diplomacy, particularly amongst the political class.

ORCID

David Tittensor http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0719-873X

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor

David Tittensor is a Lecturer in Studies of Religion in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Education, at Deakin University, Melbourne Australia. He is the author of The House of Service: The Gülen Movement and Islam’s Third Way, co-editor of Islam and Development: Exploring the Invisible Aid Economy, and is a Series Editor for Muslims in Global Societies. His research interests are Muslim movements, Turkish politics and society, and religion and development with a focus on Islam.

Notes

1 AK Party political adviser, as cited in David Tittensor, The House of Service: The Gülen Movement and Islam’s Third Way (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 80.

2 BBC News, ‘Mavi Marmara: Why Did Israel Stop the Gaza Flotilla?’, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/10203726; Rasim Ozan Kutahyali, ‘Turkey’s AKP-Gulen Conflict in Context’, Al-Monitor, 2013, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/11/turkey-akp-gulen-conflict-power-state-control.html; Joe Lauria, ‘Reclusive Turkish Imam Criticizes Gaza Flotilla’, Wall Street Journal, 2010, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704025304575284721280274694.

3 The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan, PKK) are a Marxist–Leninist movement that formed in the late 1970s and launched an armed struggle against the Turkish government for an Independent Kurdistan in 1984.

4 Bayram Balcı, ‘Turkey’s Gülen Movement: Between Social Activism and Politics’, Carnegie Middle East Program, 2014, http://carnegieendowment.org/2013/10/24/turkey-s-g-len-movement-between-social-activism-and-politics-pub-53397; M.K. Kaya, ‘The Gülenists Have Lost the Battle over the State’, The Turkey Analyst, 2015, https://www.turkeyanalyst.org/publications/turkey-analyst-articles/item/394-the-g%C3%BClenists-have-lost-the-battle-over-the-state.html.

5 Gareth Jenkins, ‘Falling Facades: The Gülen Movement and Turkey’s Escalating Power Struggle’, ibid., 2014, https://turkeyanalyst.org/publications/turkey-analyst-articles/item/81-falling-facades-the-g%C3%BClen-movement-and-turkeys-escalating-power-struggle.html. For a detailed breakdown of the GM’s dershane network, albeit an incomplete list, see Haber Vaktim, ‘Türkiye’de Gülen Cemaatinin Kaç Dershanesi Var?’, 2013, http://www.habervaktim.com/haber/351527/turkiyede-gulen-cemaatinin-kac-dershanesi-var.html.

6 For example, by 2005, the average cost for a university exam preparatory course was US$4,711 and there were 1.6 million students that applied to university that year. Joshua D. Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World (New York: New York Universty Press, 2013), p. 135.

7 Daren Butler and Nick Tattersall, ‘Turkish Judicial Purge Brings Corruption Investigation to Halt’, Reuters, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-corruption/turkish-judicial-purge-brings-corruption-investigation-to-halt-idUSBREA0L1G220140122. He would then go on to dismiss both the judge and the four prosecutors responsible for the case and issue arrest warrants for the prosecutors. See Hürriyet Daily News, ‘Prosecutors, Judge of Turkey’s Massive Graft Probe Dismissed from Profession’, 2015, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/prosecutors-judge-of-turkeys-massive-graft-probe-dismissed-from-profession-82294; Ece Toksabay, ‘Turkish Corruption Prosecutors Flee after Arrest Warrants Issued’, Reuters, 2015, https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-turkey-prosecutors/turkish-corruption-prosecutors-flee-after-arrest-warrants-issued-idUKKCN0QG1KV20150811.

8 BBC News, ‘Zaman Newspaper: Seized Turkish Daily “Now Pro-Government”’, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35739547; Mehmet Cetingulec, ‘Why Did Turkey Seize Bank Asya?’, Al-Monitor, 2015, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/02/turkey-seize-robust-bank.html; Zülfikar Doğan, ‘Erdogan Expected to Put Anti-Gulen Movement in High Gear’, ibid., 2016, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/06/turkey-university-take-over-trustees-gulen-movement.html; Hurriyet Daily News, ‘Gülen-Linked Tv Stations Removed from Top Satellite Network’, 2015, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/gulen-linked-tv-stations-removed-from-top-satellite-network.aspx?pageID=238&nID=91163&NewsCatID=341.

9 Patrick Cockburn, ‘Turkey Coup: Erdogan Set to Crush All Opponents and Purge Army after Surprise Failed Attempt’, The Independent, 2016, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/turkey-coup-erdogan-likely-to-crush-all-opponents-after-surprise-attempt-a7140546.html.

10 Helen Rose Ebaugh, The Gülen Movement: A Sociological Analysis of a Civic Movement Rooted in Moderate Islam (Dordrecht: Springer, 2010), p. 5; Constanze Letsch, ‘Turkey’s President Orders Closure of 1,000 Private Schools Linked to Gülen’, The Guardian, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/23/turkey-erdogan-closure-of-1000-private-schools-gulen; Mehul Srivastava, ‘Assets Worth $11bn Seized in Turkey Crackdown’, Financial Times, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/fed595d0-631e-11e7-8814-0ac7eb84e5f1; BBC News, ‘Turkey Dismisses Thousands a Year after Coup Attempt’, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40612056.

11 Elias Mesret, ‘Ethiopian Schools Linked to Turkish Cleric Are Sold’, AP News, 2017, https://apnews.com/e77b1fc75a0b43c794c5c1a3e7dc5b99/ethiopian-schools-linked-turkish-cleric-are-sold; Middle East Monitor, ‘Gcc Declare Gulen Group a “Terrorist Organization”’, 2016, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20161014-gcc-declare-feto-a-terrorist-organization/; Zia Weise, ‘Long Arm of Turkey’s Anti-Gülenist Purge’, Politico, 2017, https://www.politico.eu/article/long-arm-of-turkeys-anti-gulenist-purge/.

12 See Jonathan Lacey, ‘The Gülen Movement in Ireland: Civil Society Engagements of a Turkish Religio-Cultural Movement’, Turkish Studies, 10:2 (2009), pp. 295–315; Paul Weller, ‘The Gülen Movement in the United Kingdom’ in Gürkan Çelik, Johan Leman, and Karel Steenbrink (eds) Gülen-Inspired Hizmet in Europe: The Western Journey of a Turkish Muslim Movement (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2015).

13 See Caroline Tee, The Gülen Movement in Turkey: The Politics of Islam and Modernity (London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2016); M. Hakan Yavuz, Toward an Islamic Enlightenment: The Gülen Movement (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Joshua D. Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World (New York: New York Universty Press, 2013); Tittensor, The House of Service: The Gülen Movement and Islam’s Third Way.

14 Ariel I. Ahram and John Gledhill, ‘Exiles and Political Islam: Contrasting Khomeini’s Religious Nationalism with Bin Laden’s Violent Globalism’ in David Malet and Miriam J. Anderson (eds) Transnational Actors in War and Peace: Militants, Activists, and Corporations in World Politics (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2017).

15 Ibid.; M. Hakan Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).

16 Nicholas Van Hear, ‘From “Durable Solutions” to “Transnational Relations”: Home and Exile among Refugee Diasporas’ in Ninna Nyberg Sørensen and Bodil Folke Frederiksen (eds) Beyond Home and Exile: Making Sense of Lives on the Move (Copenhagen: Roskilde University, 2002).

17 Ibid.

18 Associated Press and Chris Kitching, ‘Sweden Refuses to Hand over Turkish Asylum Seekers with Links to “Coup Mastermind” Islamic Cleric Gulen as EU Says Erdogan Must “Respect the Rule of Law”’, Daily Mail, 2016, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3721483/Sweden-wont-return-people-linked-failed-Turkey-coup.html.

19 Stockholm Center for Freedom, ‘About Stockholm Center for Freedom’, https://stockholmcf.org/about-us/.

20 STBC, ‘Istanbul Business Trip in Cooperation with MiG’, http://www.stbc.se/index.php/en/about-us/9-news/1-istanbul-business-trip-in-cooperation-with-mig. For a detailed account of TUSKON see Joshua D. Hendrick, ‘Globalization, Islamic Activism, and Passive Revolution in Turkey: The Case of Fethullah Gülen’, Journal of Power, 2:3 (2009), pp. 343–368. Further, for a good account of how the setting up of local businesses and business associations is standard practice for the GM see Bayram Balcı, Orta Asya'da İslam Misyonerleri: Fethullah Gülen Okulları (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2005).

21 Ebaugh, The Gülen Movement: A Sociological Analysis of a Civic Movement Rooted in Moderate Islam; Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World.

22 Tittensor, The House of Service: The Gülen Movement and Islam’s Third Way.

23 Turkey Institute, ‘About Us’, https://www.turkeyinstitute.org.uk/about/. Emphasis added.

24 ‘Kerim Balci’, https://www.turkeyinstitute.org.uk/people/kerim-balci/.

25 Weise, ‘Long Arm of Turkey’s Anti-Gülenist Purge’.

26 Ibid.

27 With regards to Işık College changing its name, the rationale was that it wanted to have a name that better reflected the multicultural nature of the school. However, organizations in the GM regularly change names and it is not always to a less Turkish name. For example, The Light Publishing changed its name to Tuğhra Books, which refers to the Ottoman Sultan’s calligraphic seal. As such, another possible explanation is that the regular name changes make it harder to chart and keep track of the GMs activities and relates to Hendrick’s notion of ‘strategic ambiguity’. See Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World; David Tittensor, ‘The Changing Nature of Islamic Mission: The Cases of Tablighi Jama’ at and the Gülen Movement’ in Matthew Clarke and David Tittensor (eds) Islam and Development: Exploring the Invisible Aid Economy (Farnham: Ashgate, 2014), 46,fn56.

28 Gülen Institute, ‘Our Mission’, http://www.guleninstitute.org/about-gulen/mission/.

29 ISRA, ‘History of ISRA’, https://www.isra.org.au/history-of-isra.

30 Greg Barton, ‘How the Hizmet Works: Islam, Dialogue and the Gülen Movement in Australia’, Hizmet Review Studies, 1:1 (2014), pp. 9–25.

31 The initial chair at ACU was funded through five instalments of $586,000 by the AIS to a total of $2.93 million. The funding arrangement for the chair at Deakin University, which involves both AIS and the Selemiye Foundation has not been disclosed. See Jill Rowbotham, ‘Catholic Hits Islamic Chair’, The Australian, 2008, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/catholic-hits-islamic-chair/news-story/41b8a687a8fcbc53d55ba444ec41e9e8; Turkish Journal, ‘Deakin Uni Launches “Fethullah Gulen Chair in Islamic Studies and Intercultural Dialogue”’, 2016, http://www.turkishjournal.com.au/2016/12/deakin-uni-opens-fethullah-gulen-chair-in-islamic-studies-and-intercultural-dialogue/.

32 Deakin University, ‘Fethullah Gulen Chair in Islamic Studies and Intercultural Dialogue’, Research News, 2015, http://www.deakin.edu.au/research/research-news/articles/fethullah-gulen-chair-in-islamic-studies-and-intercultural-dialogue; ACU, ‘Launch of the Fethullah Gulen Chair’, http://www.acu.edu.au/about_acu/faculties,_institutes_and_centres/centres/inter-religious_dialogue/fethullah_gulen_chair/more_information_about_the_fethullah_gulen_chair.

33 AIS, ‘Finding Spirituality in Our Troubled World: Christian & Muslim Perspectives’, Blog, 2017, http://www.intercultural.org.au/findingspirituality/.

34 An iftar is the breaking of the fast during the holy month of Ramadan. Fasting during Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam, wherein Muslims forgo food and drink from dawn until sunset as a form of spiritual renewal.

35 Barton, ‘How the Hizmet Works: Islam, Dialogue and the Gülen Movement in Australia’; Chip Le Grand, ‘Turkey Pushed Victorian MPs to Boycott Community Dinner’, The Australian, 2017, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/foreign-affairs/turkey-pushed-victorian-mps-to-boycott-community-dinner/news-story/b3bb4ed9813ab289b6c5c50791547bbc.

36 Field diary entry, April 2008.

37 Said Nursi (1876–1960) was a Kurdish religious scholar born in the eastern Anatolian province of Bitlis. He wrote several volumes of Qur’anic exegesis known as the Risale-i Nur Kiilliyati (The Epistles of Light), and founded the Nurcu movement, which was the progenitor of the GM. For a detailed account see M Hakan Yavuz, ‘Towards an Islamic Liberalism?: The Nurcu Movement and Fethullah Gülen’, The Middle East Journal (1999), pp. 584–605.

38 Barton, ‘How the Hizmet Works: Islam, Dialogue and the Gülen Movement in Australia’. In contrast to Barton’s account, the Australia Business Register lists Zaman Australia’s first activity as being in the year 2000.

39 The Rumi Forum is part of the GM’s network of interfaith and intercultural dialogue centres in the US. See http://rumiforum.org/.

40 Turkish Journal, ‘Deakin Uni Launches “Fethullah Gulen Chair in Islamic Studies and Intercultural Dialogue”’.

41 Deutsche Welle, ‘Erdogan’s Bid to Close Gulen Schools in Africa Opposed’, 2016, http://www.dw.com/en/erdogans-bid-to-close-gulen-schools-in-africa-opposed/a-19470391; Abdi Sheikh, ‘Turkey’s Anti-Gulen Crackdown Ripples Far and Wide’, Reuters, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-security-gulen-education/turkeys-anti-gulen-crackdown-ripples-far-and-wide-idUSKCN10A0AM.

42 In January 2013, Kretschmann attended the opening ceremony of a new building of the BIL-Privatschule alongside the then Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Mayor Kadir Topbaş and reportedly the then Consul General of Turkey in Stuttgart, M. Turker Ari, who cut the ribbon. Hizmet Movement News Portal, ‘State Government in Baden Wurttemberg in Constructive Dialogue with Hizmet Volunteers’, 2013, http://hizmetnews.com/949/state-government-in-baden-wurttemberg-in-constructive-dialogue-with-hizmet-volunteers/#.WgOtxvn-mM8.

43 Sheikh, ‘Turkey’s Anti-Gulen Crackdown Ripples Far and Wide’.

44 Bianet, ‘Gözaltına Alınan 12 Gazeteci Ve Yazar Adliyeye Sevk Edildi’, 2016, http://bianet.org/bianet/ifade-ozgurlugu/178390-gozaltina-alinan-12-gazeteci-ve-yazar-adliyeye-sevk-edildi#.

45 Le Grand, ‘Turkey Pushed Victorian MPs to Boycott Community Dinner’.

46 Personal communication, Australian Intercultural Society, 2 October 2017.

47 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, ‘Turkey Country Brief’, Australian Government, http://dfat.gov.au/geo/turkey/pages/turkey-country-brief.aspx.

48 Deutsche Welle, ‘Turkey Targets Gulen Schools in Africa’, 2016, http://www.dw.com/en/turkey-targets-gulen-schools-in-africa/a-19448457. Indeed, between 2007 and 2011 Somalia was Turkey’s second largest recipient of overseas development assistance (17%) receiving $78 million. See GHA, ‘Global Humanitarian Assistance Report 2013’, in Development Initiatives (Bristol, UK 2013).

49 Chip Le Grand, ‘Ankara-Supplied Clerics Spy on Turkish-Australian Communities’, The Australian, 2016, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/foreign-affairs/ankarasupplied-clerics-spy-on-turkishaustralian-communities/news-story/570bbc1432ab2ebd5a3e9a31d662b80b.

50 Rachel Baxendale, ‘AFIC President Rejects Claims He Wrote Letter to Turkish President’, ibid., 2017, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/afic-president-rejects-claims-he-wrote-letter-to-turkish-president/news-story/54ce40e2763d1bd2d4cb6ac9fc37f15b.

51 Ibid.

52 Rhiannon Tuffied, ‘Campus Closes’, Shepparton News, 2017, http://www.sheppnews.com.au/2017/11/01/117208/campus-closes.

53 Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World.

54 Philipp Bruckmayr, ‘From Dialogue to Collaboration: The Vision of Fethullah Gülen and Muslim-Christian Relations’, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 26:3 (2009), p. 154.

55 Kimse Yok Mu? like many other GM organizations was shut down following the failed coup. It reportedly started as a TV programme on the GMs Samanyolu TV station to help with victims of an earthquake in 1999. In March 2004 it was formed into a not-for-profit organization and grew to have 81 regional branches all over Turkey. It is also said to have operated in some European countries, such as Germany, France and the Netherlands, where there are significant Turkish diasporas. See Doğan Koç, ‘Generating an Understanding of Financial Resources in the Gülen Movement:“Kimse Yok Mu” Solidarity and Aid Association’, Islam in the Age of Global Challenges: Alternative Perspectives of the Gulen Movement, 2008, https://fgulen.com/en/gulen-movement/conference-papers/gulen-conference-in-washington/26454-generating-an-understanding-of-financial-resources-in-fethullah-gulen-movement-kimse-yok-mu-foundation.

56 Kath Engebretson, ‘Muslims, Catholics and the Common Purpose of Justice and Peace’, From Dialogue to Collaboration: The Vision of Fethullah Gülen and Muslim-Christian Relations, 2009, http://www.fethullahgulen.com/en/gulen-movement/conference-papers/1344-gulen-conference-in-melbourne/26793-muslims-catholics-and-the-common-purpose-of-justice-and-peace.

57 ‘Muslims, Catholics and the Common Purpose of Justice and Peace’, in Kath Engebretson et al. (eds) International Handbook of Inter-Religious Education (Dordrecht: Springer, 2010), pp. 683–694.

58 Neil Ormerod, ‘Secularization: A Matter of Common Interest and Concern for Muslims and Christians’, From Dialogue to Collaboration: The Vision of Fethullah Gülen and Muslim-Christian Relations, 2009, http://www.fethullahgulen.com/en/gulen-movement/conference-papers/1344-gulen-conference-in-melbourne/26790-secularization-a-matter-of-common-interest-and-concern-for-muslims-and-christians.

59 Bruckmayr, ‘From Dialogue to Collaboration: The Vision of Fethullah Gülen and Muslim-Christian Relations’, p. 154.

60 ACU, Monash University, and AIS, ‘From Dialogue to Collaboration: The Vision of Fethullah Gülen and Muslim-Christian Relations’, Conference Program, 2009, https://www.acu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/194210/Gulen_conference_Abstracts.pdf.

61 Barney Zwartz, ‘A Different Jihad’, The Age, 2009, http://www.theage.com.au/world/a-different-jihad-20090721-ds12.html.

62 See Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (New York: Pantheon Books, 2004).

63 Zwartz, ‘A Different Jihad’.

64 See ‘Islam in the Contemporary World: The Fethullah Gülen Movement in Thought and Practice’, http://www.fethullahgulenconference.org/houston/index.php; ‘Conferences about Fethullah Gulen and Gulen Movement’, http://www.fethullahgulenconference.org/.

65 See ‘Islam in the Contemporary World: The Fethullah Gülen Movement in Thought and Practice’.

66 Gülen Institute, ‘Recommended Books’, http://www.guleninstitute.org/publications/books/recommended-books/. The list includes works by movement members Muhammad Çetin, Mehmet Enes Ergene, Mehmet Kalyoncu, and also works by co-opted scholars Helen Rose Ebaugh and Jill Carrol. For a detailed account of the long involvement of Ebaugh and Carrol with the GM and its facilitation of their work see Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World. See also David Tittensor, ‘Secrecy and Hierarchy within the Gülen Movement and the Question of Academic Responsibility’ in M. Hakan Yavuz and Bayram Balcı (eds) Turkey’s July 15th Coup and the Gülen Movement: What Happened and Why (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2018).

67 Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World 30, p. 215.

68 Ibid.

69 Pim Valkenberg, Renewing Islam by Service: A Christian View of Fethullah GüLen and the Hizmet Movement (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2015), p. 71.

70 Sabine Dreher, ‘The Globalization Project of the Hizmet Movement’ in Sabine Dreher and Peter J. Smith (eds) Religious Activism in the Global Economy (London: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016), p. 123.

71 Ergenekon and Balyoz (Sledgehammer) are the names of two major trials that took place between 2007 and 2013 that dealt with alleged ultranationalist ‘deep state’ plots to overthrow the Turkish government. See İbrahim Efe and Murat Yeşiltaş, ‘Representations of the Ergenekon Case in Turkey, 2007–11: Today’s Zaman and Hürriyet Daily News’, Middle East Critique 21:2 (2012), pp. 187–201; Gareth H Jenkins, ‘The Balyoz Retrial and the Changing Politics of Turkish Justice’, The Turkey Analyst, 7:12 (2014), https://www.turkeyanalyst.org/publications/turkey-analyst-articles/item/331-the-balyoz-retrial-and-the-changing-politics-of-turkish-justice.html; M. Hakan Yavuz and Rasim Koç, ‘The Turkish Coup Attempt: The Gülen Movement Vs. The State’, Middle East Policy, 23:4 (2016), pp. 136–148.

72 60 Minutes, ‘The Gülen Movement’, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ktl--IDnM7I.

73 Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World, p. 214.

74 SBS News, ‘Bali Bombings: Full List of Victims’ Names’, 2013, https://www.sbs.com.au/news/bali-bombings-full-list-of-victims-names.

75 Kent Roach, The 9/11 Effect: Comparative Counter-Terrorism (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 310.

76 ABC News, ‘AFP to Take over Parliament House Security after “Chatter” about Possible Terrorist Attack; Investigation into Thwarted “Beheading Plot” Continues’, ABC News, 2014, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-19/afp-to-take-over-parliament-house-security/5754718.

77 Emma Griffiths and Simon Cullen, ‘Foreign Fighters Bill Passes Senate Amid Suggestions New Laws Could Allow ADF to Kill Australians’, ibid., http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-10-29/bishop-defends-foreign-fighters-bill-powers/5850394; Naomi Woodley, ‘Senate Passes New Counter-Terrorism Laws Giving Stronger Powers to Intelligence Agency ASIO’, ibid., http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-25/new-counter-terrorism-laws-pass-the-senate/5770256.

78 Liz Burke et al., ‘Five Men Arrested in Terror Raids across Sydney Following Parramatta Shooting’, The Daily Telegraph, 2015, http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/five-men-arrested-in-terror-raids-across-sydney-following-parramatta-shooting/story-fnhocwho-1227559808363; Megan Levy, ‘Three of Four Males Arrested in Counter-Terrorism Raids Released without Charge’, Sydney Morning Herald, 2015, http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/three-of-four-males-arrested-in-counterterrorism-raids-released-without-charge-20151007-gk3tv5.html; Emma Partridge et al., ‘Terror Raids: 800 Police and Two Men Charged’, The Sydney Morning Herald, 2014, http://www.smh.com.au/national/terror-raids-800-police-and-two-men-charged-20140918-10iwwh.html.

79 Affinity Intercultural Foundation, ‘Study Tours’ http://affinity.org.au/turkey-tours/. For a detailed account of the varied responses from Central Asian governments to requests from Turkey to crack down on the GM following the failed coup see Bayram Balcı, ‘The Coup Attempt in Turkey and Its Effect on the Future of the Gülen Movement in the Post–Soviet Space’ in M. Hakan Yavuz and Bayram Balcı (eds) Turkey’s July 15th Coup and the Gülen Movement: What Happened and Why (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2018).