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Abstract
We present a socio-technical systems framework and underlying principles to help understand a sample of crowd-related disasters. Our approach is founded on the premise that disasters result from complex systems failures, wherein a series of interdependent factors combine in such a way as to cause problems. We explore the explanatory power of our approach by analysing three incidents; Hillsborough football stadium disaster (1989), King's Cross underground fire (1987), and Bradford City stadium fire (1985). We find a common set of fundamental, interrelated issues and consistent violations of our socio-technical design principles. We conclude by discussing how our framework, principles and socio-technical thinking more generally, may contribute to theory and practice.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Editors and anonymous reviewers for their feedback and assistance in improving the paper.
Notes
In this instance, end-users are the individuals delivering the systems (police, stewards) rather than the recipients (fans).
Whilst this idea about tackling problems at source may appear to contradict earlier suggestions for the need to call the fire brigade immediately, we are not advocating one course of action over the other, but rather the importance of doing both. This practice of requesting expert help and then attempting to address the issue at source is common in sailing, for example.