Abstract
The main purpose of this paper is to examine Rainer Forst’s account of ‘noumenal power’. Forst’s proposal for a revised ‘critical theory of power’ is firmly embedded in his philosophical understanding of ‘the right to justification’. Whereas the latter has been extensively discussed in the secondary literature, the former has – with the exception of various exchanges that have taken place between Forst and his critics at academic conferences – received little attention. This paper is an attempt to fill this gap in the literature. Given the increasing influence of Forst’s scholarly writings on paradigmatic developments in contemporary critical theory, it is imperative to scrutinize the key assumptions underlying his conception of ‘noumenal power’ and to assess its usefulness for overcoming the shortcomings of alternative explanatory frameworks. In order to accomplish this, the analysis is divided into four parts. The first part provides some introductory definitional reflections on the concept of power. The second part focuses on several dichotomous meanings attached to the concept of power – notably, ‘soft power’ vs. ‘hard power’, ‘power to’ vs. ‘power over’, and ‘power for’ vs. ‘power against’. The third part elucidates the principal features of Forst’s interpretation of ‘noumenal power’, in addition to drawing attention to his typological distinction between ‘power’, ‘rule’, ‘domination’, and ‘violence’. The final part offers an assessment of Forst’s account of ‘noumenal power’, arguing that, although it succeeds in avoiding the drawbacks of rival approaches, it suffers from significant limitations. The paper concludes by giving a synopsis of the vital insights that can be obtained from the preceding inquiry.
Acknowledgements
I am immensely grateful to two anonymous reviewers for providing me with useful and constructive comments on a draft version of this article. Furthermore, I would like to thank Mark Haugaard and William Outhwaite for making several valuable suggestions.
Notes
9. Ibid., p. 111 (italics in original).
11. Ibid., p. 115 (italics in original).
12. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
13. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
14. See, for example, ibid., p. 123.
17. On this point, see Susen (Citation2015a), pp. 16–18. See also ibid., pp. 1, 16–22, 44, 75, 113, 119, 143, 174, 178, 179, 180, 190, 191, 204, 205, 219, 223, 235, 236, 269, 273, 276, 279, and 285n86. On the social and political challenges arising from the experience of ambivalence under modern and/or postmodern conditions, see, for instance: Bauman (Citation1991), Bauman and Tester (Citation2007, esp. pp. 23–25 and 29), Hammond (Citation2011, pp. 305, 310, 312, and 315), Iggers (Citation2005 [1997], pp. 146–147), Jacobsen and Marshman (Citation2008, pp. 804–807), Kellner (Citation2007, p. 117), Mulinari and Sandell (Citation2009, p. 495), Quicke (Citation1999, p. 281), Susen (Citation2010d, esp. pp. 62–78), and van Raaij (Citation1993, esp. pp. 543–546, 551–555, and 559–561).
22. On this point, see ibid., p. 113: ‘[…] I think a better definition is available that avoids essential contestation’.
23. Ibid., p. 114 (italics added).
27. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
28. Ibid., p. 115 (italics in original).
29. Ibid., p. 116 (italics in original).
32. Ibid., p. 118 (italics added).
33. Ibid., p. 118 (italics in original).
34. On this point, see Susen (Citation2007, pp. 35, 37, 40, 69, 72, 82, 227n23, and 251). See also Susen (Citation2018, p. 48). In addition, see Habermas (Citation1987 [1965/1968], p. 314).
35. Forst (Citation2015b, p. 118) (italics added). On the concept of ‘justification’, see, for example: Bergmann (Citation2006), BonJour and Sosa (Citation2003), Fahrmeir (Citation2013), Forst (Citation2012 [2007], Citation2013 [2011], Citation2013, Citation2014, Citation2015a), Habermas (Citation2004 [1999]), Jetté (Citation2003), McCain (Citation2014), Müller-Doohm (Citation2000), Porter (Citation2006), Vaisey (Citation2009). On the concept of ‘justification’ in Luc Boltanski’s ‘pragmatic sociology of critique’, see, for instance: Blokker and Brighenti (Citation2011), Boltanski (Citation2002, Citation2009b), Boltanski et al. (Citation2010, Citation2014 [2009]), Citation2014 [2010]), Boltanski and Thévenot (Citation1991, Citation2006 [1991]), Corcuff (Citation1998), Eulriet (Citation2014), Lemieux (Citation2014), Livet (Citation2009), Silber (Citation2011), Stark (Citation2009), Susen (Citation2012b, Citation2014 [2012], Citation2014a, Citation2014d, Citation2014 [2015], Citation2015c, Citation2016a), Susen and Turner (Citation2014), and Wagner (Citation1999).
38. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
43. Ibid., p. 116 (italics added).
44. On this concept, see ibid., pp. 115n14, 116, 124, and 125.
45. Ibid., p. 116 (italics added).
46. Ibid., p. 116 (italics added).
47. Ibid., p. 115 (in the original version, the entire sentence appears in italics).
48. See ibid., pp. 115, 115n14, 124, and 125 (‘to do something’) as well as ibid., p. 121 (‘to do certain things’).
49. See ibid., pp. 115 and 115n15.
50. See ibid., pp. 113, 114, 115, 115n14, 115n15, 116n17, and 121.
51. Ibid., p. 116 (italics in original).
52. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
54. On the concept of ‘engagement’, see, for instance, Susen (Citation2016c).
56. On this point, see, for example: Forst (Citation2002 [1994], Citation2012 [2007], Citation2014). See also, for instance: Boltanski (Citation1990), Boltanski (Citation2009b, Citation2012 [1990]), Fraser and Honneth (Citation2003), Honneth (Citation2007 [2000]), Merle (Citation2013), Miller and Walzer (Citation1995), Nachi (Citation2006), Rawls (Citation1999 [1971]), Ricœur (Citation1995), Turner (Citation2014), and Walzer (Citation1983).
57. On the concept of ‘normative order’, see Forst (Citation2015a). See also Forst (Citation2015b, pp. 117, 118, 119, 121n30, 125, and 126). In addition, see, for instance: Forst (Citation2002 [1994], Citation2012 [2007], Citation2013 [2003], Citation2013 [2011], Citation2014).
59. Ibid., p. 118 (italics added).
62. Ibid., p. 117. See also ibid., pp. 114, 120, and 126. On this point, see also Bohman (Citation2007).
64. On this point, see ibid., p. 125.
67. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
68. Ibid., p. 116 (italics added).
69. Ibid., p. 116 (italics added).
70. Ibid., p. 116 (italics added).
71. On this point, see ibid., p. 119.
72. Ibid., pp. 116, 119, 120, 124, and 125.
73. Ibid., pp. 117, 118, 119, 121n30, 125, and 126.
74. Ibid., pp. 117, 117n18, 119, 124, and 125.
75. Ibid., pp. 120 and 124.
78. On this point, see ibid., pp. 117, 117n18, 119, 120, 121, 122, and 126. In addition, see, for example: Fahrmeir (Citation2013), Forst (Citation2013), and Forst and Günther (Citation2011a, Citation2011b).
82. Ibid., pp. 118–119 (italics added).
84. Ibid., pp. 117, 118, 119, 121n30, 125, and 126.
85. Ibid., pp. 117, 117n18, 119, 124, and 125.
91. Ibid., p. 120. See also ibid., p. 124.
94. Ibid., p. 126. See also ibid., pp. 120 and 121n30.
95. Ibid., p. 120 (italics in original).
96. Ibid., p. 120 (italics in original).
97. Ibid., p. 121 (italics in original).
99. Ibid., p. 112. See also ibid., pp. 117, 118, 121, 125, 126, and 127.
106. Ibid., p. 125 (italics in original).
108. Ibid., p. 117 (italics removed). On this concept, see also ibid., p. 126.
112. Ibid., p. 126. See also ibid., pp. 120 and 121n30.
114. Ibid., p. 124 (italics added).
115. Ibid., p. 124 (italics added).
116. Ibid., p. 124 (italics added).
117. Ibid., p. 125 (italics added).
120. Ibid., p. 125 (italics added).
129. See, for example: Bachrach and Baratz (Citation1971 [1962]), Baumgartner et al. (Citation1976), Bendix and Lipset (Citation1967), Bentham (Citation1971 [1843]), Berenskoetter and Williams (Citation2007), Boltanski (Citation2009a), Bourdieu (Citation1976, Citation1979, Citation1992), Browne and Susen (Citation2014), Burns and Buckley (Citation1976), Champlin (Citation1971a, Citation1971b), Clegg (Citation1979, Citation1989), Clegg and Haugaard (Citation2009), CitationCox et al. (1985), Dowding (Citation1996, Citation2011), Emmet (Citation1971 [1954]), Foucault (Citation1979 [1975], Citation1980), Goldman (Citation1986 [1972]), Habermas (Citation1981a, Citation1981b, Citation1987 [1985]), Haugaard (Citation1997, Citation2002), Hearn (Citation2012, Citation2014), Hearse (Citation2007), Hindess (Citation1996), Hobbes (Citation1971 [1651]), Holloway (Citation2005 [2002]), Haugaard (Citation2014a, Citation2014b), Holloway and Susen (Citation2013), Honneth (Citation1991 [1986]), Isaac (Citation1987), Lukes (Citation1974, Citation1986a, Citation1986b, Citation2007), MacKenzie (Citation1999), March (Citation1971 [1966]), Martin (Citation1977), Marx (Citation1972 [1852]), McClelland (Citation1971 [1966]), Mendieta y Nuñez (Citation1969), Miller (Citation1987), Morgenthau (Citation1971 [1958]), Morriss (Citation2002 [1987]), Poggi (Citation2001), Poulantzas (Citation1980 [1978]), Russell (Citation1986 [1938]), Saar (Citation2010), Scott (Citation1990, Citation1996, Citation2001), Simmel (Citation1986 [1950]), Stewart (Citation2001), Susen (Citation2007, Citation2008a, Citation2008b, Citation2009a, Citation2011, Citation2012a, Citation2012b, Citation2013b, Citation2013c, Citation2014a, Citation2014b, Citation2015b, Citation2016a, Citation2016c), Susen and Turner (Citation2011, Citation2014), Weber (Citation1980 [1922]), Wolin (Citation1988), and Wrong (Citation1995 [1979]).
131. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
133. Ibid., p. 113 (italics added).
134. Ibid., p. 111 (italics added).
135. See Horkheimer (Citation1976). On the distinction between ‘traditional theory’ and ‘critical theory’, see also, for example: Bohman (Citation1999, p. 459), Dallmayr (Citation1992, pp. 121–124), Edgar (Citation2005, pp. 8–10), Geuss (Citation1981, esp. p. 55), Habermas (Citation1987 [1965/1968], p. 302, Citation1987 [1981], p. xliii, Citation1988 [1963]-a, p. 211, Citation1988 [1971], pp. 2–3), Kompridis (Citation2005, p. 299), Leonard (Citation1990, pp. xiii, 3–4, 36–37, and 39), Power (Citation1998, p. 207), Susen (Citation2007, pp. 33, 38–39, and 238), and Velasco (Citation2003, p. 20).
139. Ibid., p. 114n11 (italics added).
140. See, for example, Weber (Citation1978 [1922], pp. 30–38, 60, and 1082–1085).
142. Ibid., p. 115 (italics in original).
143. Ibid., p. 112 (italics in original).
144. Ibid., p. 114 (italics added).
146. Ibid., p. 123 (italics in original).
148. Ibid., p. 116 (italics in original).
149. On the ‘politics of identity’, see, for example: Susen (Citation2010a, pp. 204–208, Citation2010b, pp. 260–262 and 271–274, Citation2013a, pp. 93, 97, and 100n35, Citation2015a, pp. 4, 171, 172, 180, 182, 193, and 272, Citation2017a, esp. pp. 170 and 178).
150. On the ‘politics of difference’, see, for example: Susen (Citation2010a, pp. 204–208, Citation2010b, pp. 260–262 and 271–274, Citation2013a, pp. 93, 97, and 100n351, Citation2015a, pp. 4, 109, 110, 171, 172, 180, 182, 183, 184, 272, and 318n4).
151. On the ‘politics of recognition’, see, for example: Susen (Citation2007, pp. 192–198, Citation2015a, pp. 4, 171, 172, 180, 182, and 272).
154. Ibid., pp. 118 and 122 (italics added).
155. Ibid., p. 116 (italics added).
160. On the relationship between ‘validity claims’ and ‘legitimacy claims’, see, for example: Susen (Citation2007, p. 257, Citation2013b, esp. pp. 200, 207–215, 217–218, 219, 222, 225–230, Citation2013c, esp. pp. 330, 331, 334, 335, 337, 339, 341, 342, 343, 344, 349, 363, 365, and 369, Citation2015a, pp. 10, 55, and 200) and Susen and Baert (Citation2017).
162. Cf. Habermas’s concept of the ‘ideal speech situation’; see, for example: Habermas (Citation1970, pp. 367 and 371–374, Citation1988 [1963]-b, pp. 279 and 281, Citation1992, pp. 419, 422, and 452, Citation2001 [1984], pp. 85–86, 93, 97–99, and 102–103, Citation2001, pp. 7–8, 10–13, 23, 29, 37, 42, 45–47, 52, and 83–84, Citation2004, p. 875). See also, for example: Susen (Citation2007, pp. 74, 88–90, 99–100n105, 116, 122, 123, 144, 261, and 306, Citation2009a, pp. 81–82 and 93–99, Citation2010c, esp. pp. 107–111).
164. For a tentative outline of a typology of justifications, see, for example, Susen (Citation2017d).
165. For a tentative outline of a typology of rationality, see, for example, Susen (Citation2015a, p. 54). See also ibid., pp. 13, 15, 20, 35, 44, 45, 48, 62, 90, 104, 105, 115, 116, 120, 121, 137, 165, 175, 183, 190, 191, 198, 199, 225, 227, 235, 236, 255, 261, 274, 281, and 292n39.
166. For a tentative outline of a typology of interests, see, for example, Susen (Citation2016d, pp. 130–131).
167. For a tentative outline of a typology of desires, see, for example, Susen (Citation2007, pp. 293–296).
169. Forst (Citation2015b, p. 117) (italics removed). On this concept, see also ibid., p. 126.
171. Ibid., p. 117 (italics removed). On this concept, see also ibid., p. 126.
172. On the concept of ‘relative autonomy’, see, for example, Susen (Citation2015a), pp. 80, 81, 88, 99, 101, 105, 129, and 266.
173. On the concept of ‘metanarrative’, see ibid., pp. 11, 27, 46, 107, 140, 141, 142, 143, 149, 166, 170, 186, 187, 188, 189, 218, 240, 245, 255, 256, 259, 260, 268, 271, 281, 291n23, 312n11, 334n29, 339n185, 339n187, and 340n192.
174. For a tentative outline of a typology of metanarratives, see, for example, ibid., pp. 140–143.
176. On this concept, see ibid., pp. 115n14, 116, 124, and 125.
178. On the concept of the ‘global network society’, see, for example: Castells (Citation1996, Citation1997, Citation1998). See also, for instance: Baert and da Silva (Citation2010 [1998], pp. 249–255), Beck and Lau (Citation2005, pp. 525–533), Burawoy et al. (Citation2000, esp. pp. 34–35 and 345–349), Buzan et al. (Citation1998, pp. 388–391), della Porta et al. (Citation2006), Featherstone and Lash (Citation1995, pp. 1–15), Giddens (Citation1990, p. 64, Citation1991, pp. 1 and 20–23), Kali and Reyes (Citation2007), Latour (Citation2005, esp. pp. 247–262), Ruby (Citation1990, p. 35), Susen (Citation2015a, pp. 118, 125, 170, 210, 227, 255, and 277), and Toews (Citation2003, p. 82).
179. On this point, see, for example, Bruno Latour’s actor-network theory, which tends to reject traditional notions of the human subject and makes a case for a non-anthropocentric exploration of the concept of agency. See Latour (Citation1990, Citation2005). For an excellent discussion of this issue, see, for example, Wilding (Citation2010). See also Susen (Citation2015a, pp. 143 and 312n14).
181. Ibid., p. 116 (italics in original).
185. Ibid., p. 115 (italics added).
186. On this point, see Susen (Citation2014c, pp. 349–350) (point 13). See also Susen (Citation2017c, esp. p. 115); in addition, see ibid. pp. 104–106, 110, 113–115, 118, and 120.
187. On this point, see, for example, Susen (Citation2016a, p. 220) (point 6). See also ibid., pp. 201–202. In addition, see Susen (Citation2014a).
189. On this point, see Susen (Citation2015a, pp. 13, 105, 215, 236, 259, and 275). On the distinction between ‘Verstand’ and ‘Vernunft’, see, for example: Susen (Citation2009b, pp. 104–105, Citation2010c, pp. 112–113, Citation2013c, pp. 326 and 330–331, Citation2015b, pp. 1027–1028).
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