Narrative research in sport and exercise science in the early 21^st century: a state-of-the-art critical review

ABSTRACT

The aims of this review were to: 1) offer a comprehensive analysis of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences since the beginning of the 21st century, 2) enhance conceptual clarity and methodological rigour, and 3) identify new avenues of potential narrative exploration. Following an extensive search across two databases (i.e. Sportdiscus and Psychinfo) and a targeted manual search, 77 research papers were used to provide an overview of narrative research, highlighting data collection and analysis methods, participants, findings, significant contributions, as well as the narrative themes and types. Our analytic process, drawing from the traditions of narrative analysis, showcased how narrative research has been conducted and its revelations in sport and exercise sciences. The analysis uncovered that 51 articles had aims in three primary areas: 1) meaning and identity construction, 2) disability and/or impairment, and 3) athletic career pathways and/or in-career transitions. Additionally, 51 articles identified narrative types, with the performance (N = 26), relational (N = 12), and restitution (N = 8) types appearing most frequently. While this review reveals commonalities linking narrative research in sport and exercise sciences, many gaps and future challenges were also identified. Primarily, we recommend that narrative researchers: 1) be more consistent in their language to prevent confusion and misunderstandings, 2) differentiate between narratives and stories more clearly, 3) analyse the content and/or structure of stories, 4) expand research on exercise, health, and physical activity, 5) include participants from diverse cultural and non-Western contexts, 6) explore narrative characters, and 7) investigate the performance narrative type in applied settings.

KEYWORDS:

• Narrative analysis
• narrative types
• stories
• storyanalyst
• storyteller

Researchers engaging with narrative inquiry as a form of qualitative research have become more common within sport and exercise sciences. For instance, 19% (13 out of 69) of all published articles in the journal of Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health in 2022 were identified as incorporating a narrative approach. Within these studies, the topics varied widely with researchers exploring issues such as elite talent in sport and arts (John and Thiel 2022), racism (Keaton 2022), disability in sport and physical activity (Lowry et al. 2022; Williams, Lozano-Sufrategui, and Tomasone 2022), gender (Darpatova-Hruzewicz 2022; Graham and Blackett 2022), and trauma (Whitley et al. 2022). Consequently, as researchers continue to utilise narrative analysis as a form of meaning-making, a review of the field since its ascendency is overdue. Below, we briefly outline narrative as a form of inquiry, present an overview of the landscape of narrative analysis in sport and exercise through the overview of eight review-type papers, and then proceed with defining the scope, type, and aims of this review.

Narrative as a form of inquiry

Humans are storytellers, and as far as we can tell, this has always been so. For example, there are illustrations of cave art from the Palaeolithic era, ‘imbued with narrative content [that] display complex literary features such as composition, juxtaposition, association and scene’ (Papathomas 2016, 38). This historical connection to the human capacity and propensity for story telling is highly important because narrative researchers believe that stories are actors, they do things, and ‘narratives play a key part in constituting meaning [and] making sense of our experiences’ (B. Smith and Sparkes 2009a, 280). This interest in stories, and the subsequent understanding of the narratives that hold them together, began to take shape at the beginning of the 20^th century with Thomas and Znaniecki’s (1918) sociological studies on Polish immigrants. Labov and Waletzky (1967) then offered a more formalised approach to narrative inquiry, while the ‘narrative turn’ opened a new door of possibilities within the field (Bruner 1986; A. W. Frank 1995; Gergen and Gergen 1986; Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, and Zilber 1998). Yet, as the field of narrative research has developed and evolved, there does remain a lack of clarity concerning the methodological process and definitional boundaries, challenging the coherence and generalisability of findings. At the same time, there are indeed many elements that hold narrative research together; first and foremost, it is the focus and interest in stories.

Primarily, narrative researchers are interested in: 1) the stories people tell, and 2) the broader narrative structures available in which these stories are shaped and moulded. Importantly, there are no shortage of definitions and interpretations concerning what comprises a story or a narrative (for an overview see Monforte and Smith 2023), so for the purpose of this review paper we suggest the following. First, a story is a tale that has a sequence, coherence, a discernable consequence, and is further aided by the human imagination (A. W. Frank 2010; Gergen and Gergen 1986; B. Smith and Sparkes 2009a). Stories are usually consistent in how they unfold, the listener can follow the events until the conclusion, and a storyteller crafts each tale within the recesses of their own mind. Second, according to Frank (2010), stories refer to the actual tales people tell while the term narrative is used to describe the dimensions of a story or stories that hold them together. ‘People tell stories, not narratives’ (B. Smith and Sparkes 2009b, 2), and Frank (2013) proposed that a narrative is, ‘the most general storyline that can be recognized underlying the plot and tensions of particular stories’ (p. 75). As Papathomas (2016) suggests, ‘where there is an identifiable genre, plot and character, there is usually a narrative’ (p. 40). Finally, Monforte and Smith (2023) point out that while ‘stories are unique and individual, people compose their stories by adapting and combining the narratives that cultures make available’ (p. 110).

Narrative research within sport and exercise sciences

Narrative analysis first appeared in sport and exercise literature via Smith and Sparkes’ (2002, 2004; Sparkes and Smith 2003, 2005) studies about men who acquired spinal cord injuries through sport. Within these investigations, the authors brought attention to three narrative types (e.g. chaos, restitution, and quest) that the men used to construct their life stories. For example, within the restitution narrative type, the men were able-bodied, now they are disabled, and strive to be able-bodied once again. Crucially, narratives are not stagnant entities, they are ‘actors … and can do things on, in, and with us’ (B. Smith 2016, 261). Meaning, if a restitution narrative is guiding a disabled person’s life, what happens to that life when the impairment will remain chronic (B. Smith and Sparkes 2011)? Notably, narrative types are accessible and applicable to others and these three narrative types have been utilised and expanded by researchers investigating physical activity amongst wounded military veterans (Carless 2014; Evans, Andreassen, and Virklund 2020), body perceptions of women engaging in yoga (Leledaki 2014), or growth-related experiences in Olympic swimmers (Howells and Fletcher 2015).

Following the initial work of Sparkes and Smith, the next notable contribution within the field was the identification of the performance narrative (Carless and Douglas 2009; Douglas and Carless 2006) amongst professional female golfers. Within this narrative type, the researchers suggested that ‘being competitive is storied as “natural”, … winning is prioritized to the extent that discipline, sacrifice and pain are accepted in the pursuit of glory, and failure is accompanied by feelings of shame’ (Carless and Douglas 2009, 54). The performance narrative has become prominent since its introduction in sport and exercise, in part, because it makes sense; it is logical, available, and resonates with high performing athletes and relevant culture. Furthermore, it has driven researchers to explore the implications of this narrative in athletes’ lives, how it contributed to their successes, but also the career implications following retirement or severe injury. To date, researchers have explored the repercussions of the performance narrative in studies including Olympic and Paralympic athletes (Trainor et al. 2023), handball (Ekengren et al. 2019) and tennis (Alina Franck & Natalia Stambulova, 2018) players, as well as endurance athletes suffering from eating disorders (Busanich, McGannon, and Schinke 2014; Papathomas and Lavallee 2014).

Existing review-type papers

To overview the narrative discourse in sport and exercise sciences, we used a methodical search (see methodology) to identify eight review-type papers and appraised them in terms of type, aim, and significant contributions. Among the eight review-type papers, of particular interest and importance are the methodological propositions concerning what constitutes narrative analysis and how it ‘could’ be done. As an umbrella term, narrative analysis takes stories and storytelling as a form of inquiry (Monforte and Smith 2023), and while the methodological process is inherently open and creative, the review-type papers were consistent in promoting several key features of narrative analysis, including, but not limited to: 1) a shared philosophical assumption (McGannon and Smith 2015; Papathomas 2016; B. Smith and Sparkes 2009a), 2) the analytical perspective of the authors, and 3) the presentation of the findings. First, it is promoted that those conducting a narrative analysis adhere to an interpretivist paradigm, typically within the realms of ontological relativism and epistemological interpretivism. Narrative researchers are ‘interested in personal truth ahead of objective truth … [and] therefore seek out personal experience stories not in spite of subjectivity but because of their subjectivity’ (Papathomas 2016, 38). Second, narrative scholars will commonly analyse stories regarding ‘what’ was said (i.e. the content, narrative themes, etc.), ‘how’ it was said (i.e. story structure, plot, etc.), or both (see analytical bracketing, B. Smith 2016), and position themselves as storyanalysts or storytellers (B. Smith and Sparkes 2009a, 2009b). While both perspectives propose myriad techniques to engage with narratives, storyanalysts place narratives under analysis, but for storytellers, analysis is the story (Monforte and Smith 2023). Third, narrative research is generally presented differently than more traditional qualitative research, with storyanalysts telling a story through realist tales (often devoid of authorial presence) while storytellers use creative analytical practices and the story itself is both analytical and theoretical (Monforte and Smith 2023).

Scope, type, and aims of this review

Drawing from our analysis of eight review-type papers and our own insights into the narrative discourse within sport and exercise research, we delineate the scope, type, and aims of this review. As narrative inquiry has gradually gained interest over the past two decades, our focus naturally gravitated towards recent developments, especially considering the absence of a prior comprehensive assessment of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences. Consequently, we chose a state-of-the-art critical review approach (Grant and Booth 2009) informed by contemporary methodologies to fulfil our overarching aims of encapsulating the current landscape, identifying the most significant contributions, and charting pathways for future investigation. In summary, while the field of narrative research provides vast potential in sport and exercise research, the breadth of what has been done compels thoughtful consideration of the past, present, and future of narrative inquiry. Therefore, the aims of this review were threefold: 1) to offer a comprehensive analysis of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences since the beginning of the 21^st century, 2) to enhance conceptual clarity and methodological rigour, and 3) to identify new avenues of potential narrative exploration.

Methodology

Review design

Our research paradigm and methodology are rooted in relativist (i.e. ontological) and interpretivist (i.e. epistemological) assumptions. In alignment with these philosophical perspectives, we employed a state-of-the-art critical review method as a framework to explore existing narrative research in sport and exercise sciences. This method aligns with our aims by prioritising current issues, narrative representation, a comprehensive literature search, and an emphasis on new perspectives and future research directions. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that our philosophical stance requires a deeper comprehension of methodology beyond specific techniques or procedural tools (Sparkes, 2015). Thus, we recognise the interpretive nature of data analysis and our subjective involvement in the research process, which inevitably influenced the outcomes.

Search strategy and identifying relevant papers

This review search strategy comprised two steps. Step one aimed to identify review-type papers to provide an overview of narrative research in sport and exercise science, while step two identified relevant papers for the study. In step one, a manual search was conducted via Google Scholar as well incorporating our own familiarity with narrative literature. As a result, we identified eight review-type papers (see Table 1) representing the beginning, middle, and end of the designated period of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences. The search strategy in step two consisted of two primary rounds, followed suggestions from Grant and Booth (2009), and encompassed an iterative¹ and integrative approach designed to comprehensively gather relevant studies and ensure inclusivity. During the first round (identification), peer-reviewed journal articles (in English) were sought after on the databases of Psychinfo and Sportdiscus. As the authors wanted to avoid excluding potentially relevant articles, the broadest possible keyword ‘narrative’ was used without any restriction to the year of publication. The search led to the identification of 4156 articles. In the second round (screening) abstracts were initially screened to gauge general eligibility (i.e. must be about sports and/or exercise and conduct a narrative analysis) which resulted in the exclusion of 3967 articles. Next, we employed a relativist lens while reading the remaining 188 full-text articles for study eligibility and prioritised the following three criteria (see Monforte and Smith 2023); 1) substantive contribution and worthiness (i.e. does the research contribute empirically, methodologically, theoretically, etc.), 2) meaningful coherence (i.e. uses methods and procedures that fits research questions and connects with literature, findings, and interpretations), and 3) focus (i.e. is the purpose and point to the research consistent). The final selection was laborious, time consuming, and inevitably subjective, and while not possible to impart the intricacies of this process to the reader, the following are examples of why a narrative article could have been excluded: 1) the researchers did not actually perform a narrative analysis, 2) narrative types, themes, and/or stories were not discussed, or 3) narrative discourse was not thoroughly engaged with. Ultimately, the final screening process excluded 111 articles, leaving a total of 77 articles included in the review (see Figure 1 and Table 2). Finally, to ensure that relevant articles were not missed, we conducted a manual search (from 2002 to April 25^th, 2024) of the 12 journals in which the total list of 77 articles was comprised, which added no new articles, and a kind of saturation was achieved.

Figure 1. Search strategy flow diagram.

Table 1. A brief summary of the identified review-type papers in sport and exercise sciences on narrative research (in a chronological order).

Reference	Type and aim of the review	Contributions
Smith & Sparkes (2009a)	An overview aimed at introducing a narrative injury by ‘offering understanding of what narrative injury can be’ in sport and exercise psychology research	-Defining a narrative as a constructed form or template which people rely on to tell stories. A narrative contains a point and characters along with a plot connecting events that unfold sequentially over time and in space to provide overarching explanation or consequence. -Explaining a difference between stories (i.e. what is told by people) and narratives as their interpretations by researchers. −Positioning narrative research in relativist ontology and social constructionist epistemology -Outlining seven characteristics of narrative inquiry: meaning is basic to being human and being human entails actively constructing meaning; meaning is created through narrative, and is a storied effort and achievement; we are relational beings, and narratives and meanings are achieved within relationships; narratives are both personal and social; selves and identities are constructed through narratives, and people do and perform storied selves and narrative identities relationally; being human is to live in and through time, and narrative is a primary way of organising our experience of temporality; the body is a storyteller, and narratives are embodied. -Considering benefits of using narrative research in sport and exercise psychology as a counterweight to post-positivist research to help discovering new facets in sport and exercise stakeholders’ experiences.
Smith & Sparkes (2009b)	An overview aimed at introducing a typology of narrative analyses and description of each type illustrated by research examples.	-Pointing out that stories and narrative analysis might be relevant for sport and exercise psychology because they can ‘breathe’: meaning and lived experience; the personal and social fabric of our lives; real bodies and complexity of being human; multiple resources for taking care of people and living differently. Defining a narrative analysis as a family of methods to interpret peoples’ stories. -Offering a typology of narrative analyses including two analytic standpoints, such as a story analyst and a storyteller; four types of analysis addressing whats and hows in terms of each analytic standpoint; and examples of analytic practices related to each type. -Explaining that a story analyst conducts an analysis of narrative using analytic strategies and theoretical frameworks to tell a story in the form of a realist tale, while for a storyteller analysis is a story that speaks for itself by evocating theory and readers’ imagination to show the story and present it using creative analytical practices. -Explaining structural analysis that is telling of the whats of narrative: it is focused on the ways in which a story is organised/structured. Examples of narrative structures: a progressive, stable, regressive, heroic, tragic, sad, ironic and comic, on of discovery, slowly ascending, risky and gainful, descending and gainful, shameful, at a crossroad, restitution, quest, chaos, and/or performance story. Stories might mix and weave different narrative threads. Structural analysis has potential to reveal peoples’ identities, sense of self, and moral dilemmas. -Explaining performative analysis as telling the hows of narrative, that is it is how the narrative is communicated, the ‘doing’ of narrative dialogically produced by the participant and the researcher. -Explaining creative analytic practices (CAP) as showing the whats and hows of narrative. For a storyteller, analysis is the story (written, theatrical, etc.), and while writing, the researcher shifts from showing what is said to how it is told by using plot and dialogues as tools. These intertwined storytelling process and product are termed CAP. CAP products affect audience in different ways, and the researcher has low or no control over their interpretations. -Pointing out that boundaries between the different types of narrative analysis are blurring. Choosing when and why to use certain types depend partly upon the purpose, the point to be made, and intended audience.
Smith (2010)	An overview aimed at discussing current issues related to adopting narrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychology.	-Narrative inquiry is defined as an interpretive process based on a set of theoretical assumptions (e.g. humans lead storied lives, think in story form, make meaning, guide action, and constitute selves/realities through stories). -Discussing reactive (e.g. creating an alternative to post-positivist paradigm and cope with crisis of representation) and proactive reasons for using narrative research in sport and exercise psychology (e.g. moral, ethical, analytical, and applied benefits). -Discussing conceptualisation of self in narrative research as plural, relational, and constituted by the culture inhabited vs. its positivist view as a measurable cognitive construction existing within the person. Pointing out that people understand themselves as selves through stories they tell, the stories they have access to, and the stories they feel a part of. -Discussing specific features of narrative interviews: multiple, low structured, stimulating participants to tell stories, approached ‘scientifically’ but carried out as an ‘art’. A traveller vs. a miner metaphor for a narrative vs. post-positivist researcher. -Discussing meaning of the ‘truth’ in narrative research as something people together ‘create’, ‘make’ and ‘perform’ partly through storytelling; a result of socially conditioned agreement, arising from dialogue and reasoned discourse. What kind of truth is ‘created’ depends on many factors (e.g. motivation, moods). -Discussing new ways of data representation offered by narrative inquiry (e.g. ethnodrama, poetic representation, fiction, autoethnography) as complementary to realist tales.
McGannon and Smith (2015)	An overview aimed at disclosing opportunities opened by narrative and discursive methodologies in cultural sport psychology research	-Advocating for an alliance between critical forms of cultural sport psychology research grounded in cultural praxis and narrative as well as discursive methodologies in conceptualising/analysing culture and cultural identities. -Describing narrative inquiry as a psycho-social approach focused on: (a) stories as mediums through which people communicate meanings to make sense of life experiences and act in the social and cultural world; (b) people as storytelling creatures who tell and act on stories they produce, but also shaped by narratives circulating within society and culture. -Introducing discursive psychology as focusing on discourse and language (i.e. micro-talk, conversations, and texts) with self-identity theorised as a product of individual, social, and cultural discourses. -Identifying three main points of convergence between narrative inquiry and discursive psychology: (a) considering self-identity as socially and culturally constructed; (b) viewing socially constructed identities as multiple and fluid within the contexts people move through and stories/micro-talks as entry points for intervention and change; (c) reflexivity in the research process. -Introducing autoethnography as an autobiographical genre of writing/research displaying multiple layers of consciousness, connecting the personal to cultural. Offering a taxonomy of autoethnographic research with emotional, analytic, relational, and meta-autoethnography complemented by autophenomenography. -Describing two main approaches in discourse analysis: use of ethnomethodology to analyse conversational accounts and post-structuralist investigations focusing on broader discourses, power, and subjectivity. -Emphasising high applied potentials of narrative and discursive approaches in understanding self and others from diverse cultures.
Denison (2016)	A commentary aimed at exploring narrative as research and the interaction between theory and expression	-Reflecting on ‘extreme positions’ of pioneer narrative research as ‘an emotional reaction against positivist dogma’ instead of promoting narrative writing practices illuminating a new vision. -Offering judgement criteria for good writing: (a) language through its connection to ideas and content is used to analyse and convey the complexity of embodied living; (b) offering narratives that emphasise complexity, change, contingency, context, improvisation, struggle, and new parameters of social; (c) departing from who, what, when and where in the stories to exploring why’s and how’s around; (d) problematisation through an intentional interaction between theory and expression. -Articulating the following challenges for narrative researchers: to bring social theory into narrative accounts, find ways to blend rich description with thick analysis (but not vice versa) and illustrate expressions with theory in obvious ways.
Smith (2016)	An overview aimed at providing guidance on how to do narrative analysis from a story analyst and a storyteller perspectives.	-Explaining a story analyst perspective (i.e. put a narrative under analysis and communicate results via a realist tale) and provide a taxonomy of 10 related types of analysis focusing on whats or/and hows of narratives. Offering detailed guidelines on how to conduct thematic narrative analysis, holistic-form structural analysis, and categorical-form narrative analysis. -Defining analytical bracketing as a process of analytically moving back and forth between certain features of stories allowing to address the whats and hows of the narrative. -Explaining a storyteller perspective (i.e. analysis is story and a tale as a story is produced via creative analytical practice) and provide a taxonomy of eight related types of analysis focusing on the reflexive interplay between the whats and hows of narratives (e.g. autoethnography, creative non-fiction). Offering detailed guidelines on how perform CAP. -Pointing out that a storyteller is not superior to a story analyst or vice versa. These perspectives can be combined based on a methodology of crystallisation: integrated crystallisation brings together different analyses and forms of representation to produce a single text while dendritic crystallisation brings together multiple forms of analysis and representation to produce series of related texts.
Papathomas (2016)	An overview aimed at outlining an evolution and discussing a status of the narrative research in social sciences and sport and exercise psychology.	-Positioning of narrative research in the interpretivist paradigm and outlining key characteristics of narrative inquiry (e.g. interested in subjective truth which is co-constructed with the researcher’s bias embraced and acknowledged both in method and analysis). −Outlining an evolution of narrative research in social sciences. -Defining a narrative through the terms ‘genre/template’, ‘plot’ and ‘emplotment work’, and ‘character’ integrating personal and social elements of a story. Personal narratives reveal character and identity (seen as interactional accomplishment), while ‘public narratives’ are dominant stories within the person’s contexts. −Analysing examples of narrative research in sport and exercise psychology. -Discussing ‘big stories’ (i.e. focused on the lived and the told) and complementing ‘small stories’ (i.e. snippets of everyday talk revealing narratives-in-context).
Monforte and Smith (2023)	An overview aimed at helping psychology researchers to become connoisseurs in narrative analysis	-Defining key concepts: stories (tales which individuals or groups tell), narratives (generalised types of stories), narrative inquiry (studying and interpreting stories), and narrative analysis (a psychosocial approach that takes storytelling as its object of inquiry). -Taxonomy of narrative analysis from a story analyst’s perspective (10 types, e.g. thematic narrative analysis) and a storyteller’s perspective (nine types, e.g. autoethnography). -Providing ‘a heuristic guide’ for dialogical narrative analysis focusing on artful use of narrative resources to demonstrate what stories do both for and to people. -Offering guiding tips on how to craft a creative non-fiction. -Explaining how narrative researchers can use relativist logic to decide about criteria for rigorous narrative analysis in terms of their studies. -Introducing basic ideas of new materialism (materiality, pluralism, and fiction) and how these ideas might impact narrative research (e.g. through an assemblage of material and semiotic forces).

The papers are ordered in a chronological order or alphabetically if published the same year. Type of the review is defined based on Grant and Booth (2009).

Table 2. Summary of narrative studies.

Bibliography code/References	Aim	Data collection/Analysis/Participants	Representation of findings/Contribution	Narrative themes/Narrative types
1/Allan et al. (2018)	Explore meanings that athletes with physical disabilities attribute to their participation in parasport	Life history interviews/DNA/21 current or former athletes with a physical disability	RT/Offered a unique understanding of the developmental pathways of parasport athletes and what parasports means to these athletes	Feeling equal and valued/Ten narrative types (i.e. Cinderella story, discovery, quest, relational)
2/Barker-Ruchti et al. (2019)	Understand how an athlete experienced a qualification period and how different factors impacted it	Semi-structured interviews, surveys, observations, competition results/PA, SA, TNA/One elite athlete	RT/Illustrated how the performance narrative type can limit resources to story poor results and lead to other negative outcomes	NA/Performance, quest, restitution
3/Battaglia et al. (2022)	Explore youth athletes’ stories of their relationships with coaches and peers	Semi-structured interviews/TNA, SA, PA/Six youth athletes	RT/Illustrated how the sport environment can hinder positive interpersonal dynamics and psychosocial development	Unconditional relationship, conditional relationships, seeking connections beyond sport/NA
4/Bennett et al. (2017)	Explore the emotion narratives in older womens’ ageing bodies and physical activity-related stories	Semi-structured interviews/TNA/21 women (aged 65–94)	RT/Highlighted the importance of age, body norms, and emotional experiences in shaping later life physical activity experiences	Four narrative themes (i.e. guilt and pride, physical activity as pleasure)/NA
5/Bennett et al. (2022)	Explore how athletes experienced and coped with the COVID-19 pandemic	Semi-structured interviews/RTA/Seven paralympic athletes and 14 Olympic hopefuls	RT/Illustrated how athletes coped by reframing postponement as an opportunity for growth and offered a risk-free chance to challenge the performance narrative	Continuous (re)calibration, discovery, diversification, reclaimed yet fleeting time/NA
6/Blodgett et al. (2017)	Research cultural diversity in sport and expand the understanding of socially constructed identities	Mandala drawings, conversational interviews/ITA, CNF/10 national level boxers	Portrait vignettes/Provided contextual insight regarding how athletes construct and negotiate identities	NA/NA
7/Book et al. (2021)	Explore the career narratives of professional athletes from underserved communities	Life story interviews/TNA, SA/two male African American athletes from underserved communities	RT/Illustrated how athletes can focus more on the environmental context and the process of overcoming the odds rather than performance	Risk descent and gain/Sink or swim
8/Busanich et al. (2014)	Compare and contrast the disordered eating experiences of athletes	Semi-structured interviews/SA, PA/One elite male and one female distance runner	RT/Illustrated how disordered eating thoughts and behaviours can emerge when athletic identity becomes threatened	NA/Performance
9/Busanich et al. (2016)	Explore the embodied and disordered eating experiences of male distance runners	Visual representations, interviews/TNA, DPA on visual narratives/Four competitive distance runners	RTs, visual narratives/Highlighted the need to provide male athletes with alternative narratives	NA/Transformative, rollercoaster
10/Carless and Douglas (2009)	Understand how the performance narrative affected identity and transition experiences	Life story interviews/NASF/Two successful female tournament golfers	RT/Showed how alternative routes to and through success in elite sport and retirement are possible	NA/Discovery, performance
11/Carless & Douglas (2013a)	Explore the processes and consequences of identity development among young elite athletes	Life story interviews/TNA, HFSA/one rower and one distance runner	RT/Deepened the understanding of how cultural narratives influence behaviour and life choices	NA/Action, discovery, performance, relational
12/Carless & Douglas (2013b)	Explore the influence of the elite sport culture on athletes stories, identities, and actions	Narrative interviews/NASF/21 elite and professional athletes	RT/Illustrated the experience of athletes who conform to, deviate from, and modify the performance narrative	NA/Discovery, performance, relational
13/Carless and Sparkes (2008)	Shed light on the personal nature between physical activity and serious mental illness (SMI)	Immersion, semi-structured interviews/CNF/Three men with SMI	FPN/Highlighted the diversity and difference inherent in the ways men with SMI experience physical activity	NA/NA
14/Carless et al. (2014)	Explore the meaning and value of inclusive adventurous training for military personnel with physical disability	Informal interviews and conversations/collaboratively written CNF/Two male soldiers	SS/Expanded the understanding of the psychological effects of physical activity for injured military personnel	Life improvement, mental health problems/NA
15/Cavallerio et al. (2017)	Gain insight to the psychosocial adjustment of competitive rhythmic gymnasts to retirement	Life-history interviews/DNA/Eight retired female rhythmic gymnasts	RT/Illuminated how narratives develop once athletes retire from sport and what consequences they can have for those who embody them.	NA/Entangled, going forward, making sense
16/Coker-Cranney et al. (2018)	Explore athlete identity and deviant overconformity	Semi-structured life story interviews, written expression, questionnaires/CNF/three D1 wrestlers	SS/Word cloud/Showcased how athletic identity can lead athletes to willingly engage in forms of deviant overconformity	Overconformity/NA
17/Collard and Marlow (2016)	Develop further understanding of the psychosocial impact of exercising with epilepsy	Semi-structured interviews/CNF, HCA, SA/Three athletes with epilepsy	SS/Revealed that exercising with epilepsy has a constant positive and negative impact on sports people with epilepsy	NA/Rollercoaster, vicious cycle
18/Cooper and Ewing (2020)	Explore the significance of sporting stories in a family’s collective identity construction	Semi-structured email interviews/TNA, SA/19 members of an extended family	Interview excerpts/Illustrate how family storytelling influences collective identity construction	Narrative resources, identity construction, socialisation, traditions transcendence/NA
19/Cowan and Taylor (2016)	Explore the life of a soccer coach working with disadvantaged youth	Life history interviews/CA/A soccer coach with a criminal background	RT/Provided insight into how soccer was used to thwart a coach’s former criminal lifestyle	NA/Relational
20/Day et al. (2023)	Explore the use of an older self-letter for athletes who have experienced chronic pain	Letter writing/DNA/21 athletes who had experienced chronic pain whilst playing sports	CL/Illuminated the danger of the performance narrative and the risks this poses to receiving support during chronic pain	The ordinary hero/Performance
21/Demetriou et al. (2020)	Generate knowledge on how to improve the retirement process	Semi-structured interviews, career records, questionnaires/Narrative analysis/One retired Australian football player	FPN/Offered a way to facilitate the transition to retirement	NA/Performance
22/Douglas and Carless (2009)	Explore how professional female golfers with performance narratives experienced retirement	Life-history interviews/CA, NASF/Two retired professional golfers	RT/Highlighted how the sporting culture can influence athletes to adopt the performance narrative and lead to narrative wreckage	NA/Performance, relational
23/Ely and Ronkainen (2021)	Extend understanding of cultural transitions	Semi-structured interviews/SA, TNA, CNF/Nine American football players	Vignettes/Highlighted alternative reasons for athlete migration and various ways in which adaptation and belonging can be achieved	NA/Discovery, performance
24/Everard et al. (2021)	Explore athletes’ experiences of injury and identify new typologies	Life story interviews, creation of timelines/DNA/15 elite track athletes who had experienced injuries	Typologies/Highlighted how athletes need access to a multiplicity of stories.	NA/Longevity, more to me, merry-go-round, resilience, snowball
25/Franck & Stambulova (2018a)	Explore the junior to senior transition pathways and factors that facilitate and/or hinder the process	Narrative type interviews/HFSA/One swimmer and one tennis player	RT/Highlighted perceived factors that facilitated and hindered the junior to senior transition	NA/Effort and relationship, injury and re-orientation
26/Franck & Stambulova (2018b)	Explore the junior to senior transition pathways and factors that facilitate and/or hinder the process	Narrative type interviews/HFSA/One retired female basketballer and one retired male footballer	RT/Revealed crossroads that athletes face during their transition from junior to senior	NA/Enjoyment and relationship, performance and family
27/Griffin and Phoenix (2015)	Explore the process of learning to run, joining a running group as a non-runner and the implications for personal and social identity	Multimethod (e.g. observations, informal and in-depth interviews, case studies)/Narrative analysis/A women’s running organization	RT/Illustrated the process of identity formation in action and its implications with a combination of small, middle, and big stories	Enthusiasm, pride/Transformation
28/Hudson et al. (2015)	Examine narratives of ageing in a clinical population embarking on an exercise program	Semi-structured interviews/SA/Six elderly sedentary individuals	RT/Highlighted that while older adults may perceive exercise positively, their existing narratives of decline may be hard to change	Future hope, positive personal change/NA
29/Jewett et al. (2019)	Explore the role of the sport context in athletes’ mental health during the retirement transition	Life history interviews/DNA/One female semi-elite athlete	RT/Discussed the potentially negative aspects of the significant support and services for university sport stars	NA/Entangled, making sense, performance
30/John and Thiel (2022)	Examine how high-achieving individuals story their talent development pathways	Semi-structured interviews, biographical mapping/SA, TNA/10 elite athletes, 10 professional musicians, 10 mathematicians	RT/Highlighted the similarities between elite performers in different domains	NA/Five narrative types (i.e. applying effort, overcoming obstacles, riding the waves)
31/Kaushik et al. (2023)	Explore the experience of leisure time physical activity of physically disabled women in India	Go-along interviews, photos and field notes/TNA/Five women with a physical disability	RT/Showed how leisure time physical activity fostered empowerment, social support, and a sense of belonging	Six narrative themes (i.e. social acceptance)/Four narrative types (i.e. better me for a better you)
32/Leledaki (2014)	Explore stories of engagement with modern yoga and meditation	Semi-structured life history interviews/HCA/Seven participants	RT/Illustrated how modern yoga and meditation methods can influence bodies	Five narrative themes (i.e. mirroring body-self)/Quest, restitution, self-actualisation
33/McGannon and McMahon (2019)	Study disordered eating experiences of elite female athletes	Autobiographies/TNA/Two high profile elite athletes	RT/Expanded understanding of disordered eating within elite swimming culture	NA/Performance, personal growth
34/McGannon and McMahon (2022)	Advance understanding of running facilitators for mothers who compete in non-elite races	Semi-structured interviews/DNA, CNF/Five mothers who were competitive distance runners	Vignettes/Showed the constraining and liberating aspects of a relational narrative for identity expression and behavioural practices	Good mother runner/Performance, relational
35/McGannon et al. (2019)	Extend the understanding of the psychosocial aspects of elite athlete mothers’ athletic journeys	Autobiography/TNA/One elite runner	RT/Highlighted how a discovery narrative can facilitate training and competition goals	Reconfiguring the performance narrative, go with the flow, best of both worlds/Discovery, performance
36/McGannon, L’Estrange et al. (2020)	Learn more about the role of ultrarunning in addiction recovery capital pathways	Autobiographies/TNA/Two ultrarunners	RT/Provided insight into the role of sport in psychosocial aspects of addiction recovery	Addict-runner, addict-runner to ultra runner/Chaos, quest
37/McGannon, Pomerleau-Fontaine et al. (2020)	Explore elite extreme-sport participation in the context of identity and well-being	Documentary films and an autobiographical book/TNA/One skyrunner	RT/An expansion of identity, health, and well-being research on extreme-sport athletes	NA/Discovery, relational
38/McGannon, Graper et al. (2022)	Explore identity meanings for expectant mother athletes	Instagram/DNA/Two elite figure skating mothers	RT/Showcased how athletes can story their pregnancies and negotiate between their identity as a mother and an athlete	NA/Several narratives (e.g. narrative of becoming, fairy tale, good mother, intensive mothering)
39/McGannon, staden et al. (2022)	Expand socio-cultural understanding of athlete retirement and injury	Digital news stories/TNA/A high-profile athlete who retired due to injuries	RT/Illustrated how media stories can promote awareness concerning pain and injury linked to mental health and vulnerability	Football’s toll on athlete health/Performance, relational
40/McMahon and Penney (2013)	Explore practices of weight management during competitive swimmers’ careers	Retrospective ethnography, unstructured interviews/Ethnography/Three competitive swimmers	FPN/Illustrated the negative impact of the Australian swimming culture focus and practices related to fat, weight, and food	NA/NA
41/Middleton et al. (2020)	Extend the understanding of the role of families of elite immigrant athletes	Art-based conversational interview, guided journey/CNF/Nine elite immigrant athletes	Vignettes/Accentuated the idiographic, dynamic, and complex nature of elite athlete acculturation	Three narrative themes (i.e. It’s been a family effort to get me to where I am right now)/NA
42/Owton and Sparkes (2017)	Raise awareness of sexual abuse in sport and support change at the individual and group level	Poems and short stories provided by participants/Collaborative autoethnography/A former athlete	Vignette and poems/Showed the process of grooming in sports	NA/NA
43/Papathomas and Lavallee (2014)	Provide an alternative to medical understanding of disordered eating in sport	Unstructured interviews/TNA, SA/One elite basketballer with disordered eating	RT/Showed how the athlete struggled to align her experiences with the performance narrative when she did not meet the standards	NA/Performance
44/Partington et al. (2005)	Understand how people negotiate sporting mid-life	Semi-structured interview/PAR, SA/26 athletes (badminton, distance runners, canoeists, health club members)	FPN, interview excerpts/Showed different ways people construct their mid-life in sport and physical activity and the narrative implications	NA/Acceptance, resistance, rejuvenation
45/Partington et al. (2024)	Better understand how women student-athletes ‘do’ sport-related drinking	Semi-structured interviews/SA, CA, CNF/11 female university athletes	RT/Showed female student-athletes experiences of drinking and highlighted the difficulties of managing drinking with performance expectations and fitting into the group	Numerous narrative themes (i.e. bullying)/Five narrative types (i.e. drinking adventures, we are family, ghost story)
46/Phoenix and Orr (2017)	Examine exceptions of narrative data	Life history interviews, photography/CCA, TNA, DNA/51 participants over 60 year olds with varying health status.	RT/Illustrated how stories revolving around a theme can be filled with exceptions and contradictions (i.e. stories focused on anti-ageing can include harming behaviours)	Death and bereavement, healthy ageing, interpersonal relationships/NA
47/Phoenix and Sparkes (2009)	Explore the meaning making actions of people involved in describing the life course	Interactive interviews, semi-structured life-history interviews, field notes, observations/CCA/A 70-year-old physically active man	RT/Showed how a positive ageing identity can be achieved through both big and small stories	Being fit, being leisurely, life is what you make it/NA
48/Phoenix and Sparkes (2007)	Explore narrative maps provided to young athletes and how they influence perceptions of self-ageing	Semi-structured life history interviews/SA, CA/22 student athletes	Interview excerpts/Showed how athletes construct ageing and how it can be influenced by older peers	Preferred self, reluctant self, feared self/NA
49/Prato et al. (2021)	Explore the process of assembling a new sense of home	Semi-structured life-story interviews/DNA/Seven Colombian emigrant elite athletes	RT/Highlighted how different factors can facilitate and hinder the process of assembling a new sense of home in the host country	NA/NA
50/Quarmby et al. (2021)	Showcase the role of sport and exercise in the stories of care-experienced individuals	Unstructured interviews/CNF/Three care-experienced individuals	Portraits/Created three stories that illuminate how care-experienced young people experience sport and exercise	NA/NA
51/Ramos et al. (2024)	Explore the career development narratives of Esport players	Semi-structured interviews/HFSA/Three professional Esport players	RT/Discovered and highlighted the importance of narrative flexibility	NA/Discovery, performance, relational, sink or swim
52/Richardson et al. (2019)	Explore how and why perceptions of exercise evolved in individuals with MS	Semi-structured interviews/HFSA/50 individuals with MS	RT/Shed light on how and why perceptions of exercise may change over time	NA/The continuous exerciser, the long-term non-exerciser
53/Rogers and Werthner (2023)	Explore the experiences of athletes preparing for the 2021 Olympic Games	Semi-structured interviews/TNA/20 Canadian Olympic athletes	RT/Illuminated the critical role of context, social support, and being more than an athlete	The critical role of context, essential nature of social support, being more than an athlete, an opportunity to reflect/NA
54/Ronkainen and Ryba (2020)	Understand the processes associated with the narrative selection	Visual representation, conversational interviews/Spector-Mersel’s analysis/17 Finnish athletes	RT, VR/Discovered that the end point of the identity narratives was to establish positive future perspective and hope in the face of adversities	NA/Discovery, performance, relational
55/Ronkainen et al. (2016)	Provide a contextualised account of the gendered athletic career construction	Life story interviews/TNA/10 male and nine female Finnish runners	RT/Discovered that gendered meanings permeate career decision-making and retirement patterns of Finnish runners	Five narrative themes (i.e. loneliness)/Performance
56/Ronkainen et al. (2019)	Understand how athletes construct personal meaning and negotiate their life in transnational migration	Semi-structured life story interviews/TNA/Two transnational athletes	RT/Highlighted how relational contexts were crucial for the successful navigation of cultural transition	Four narrative themes (i.e. Family relationships)/Performance, relational,
57/Ryba et al. (2017)	Delineate the different styles of athletes’ career construction	Conversational interviews/SA/18 elite junior athletes	RT/Illustrated how athletes can struggle to see a future beyond their athletic selves. Identified three styles of athletes’ career construction; the contrapuntal, monophonic, and dissonant style	NA/Discovery, performance, relational,
58/Ryba et al. (2021)	Examine narrative construction of dual career styles and its impact	Longitudinal study with life story interviews/NDA/18 Finnish athletes	RT/Revealed that dual career discourse practices are organised along the gender binary and its consequences	46 different themes/Performance
59/Schinke et al. (2017a)	Offer a richer contextualisation of acculturation in the context of a sport system	Drawings, conversational interviews/CNF/24 elite immigrant athletes	CV/Revealed how immigrant elite athletes can move between distinct narratives that can contradict one another	Dollars in exchange for newcomer results, losing my romance with nationalism, nothing but love/NA
60/Schinke et al. (2017b)	Further the practical understanding of immigrant athletes and their acculturation journeys	Conversational interviews, drawings/CNF/24 elite athletes	CV/Revealed layers of uncertainty that seem to hinder healthy social relationships outside of sport	Opportunities abound, public stoning, weighing the risks for the journey ahead/NA
61/Sille et al. (2020)	Understand how engagement in the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy might contribute to life meaning	Life story interviews/TNA/Four Isle of Man Tourist Trophy competitors	RT/Provided novel insight into riders’ experiences by interpreting their stories through an existential lens	10 Narrative themes (i.e. love for riding motorcycles)/NA
62/Smith and Arthur (2022)	Examine conflict that can occur in elite sport teams from the leader and player’s perspectives	Autobiographies/ethnodrama, RTA/Three footballers and a football manager	Ethnodrama/Reflected the differences in the interpretation of the same conflict situations	NA/NA
63/Smith and Sparkes (2002)	Explore the manner in which coherence is constructed	Life history interviews/HAF, coherence analysis/Two men with SCI former rugby player	RT/Illustrated the interplay between coherence and the construction of life stories. How events (such as SCI) can disrupt the coherence of life-stories and its impact	NA/Quest, restitution
64/Smith and Sparkes (2005)	Illuminate the different kinds of hope experienced by rugby players with SCI	Thematic, informal, life history interviews/CA, SA/14 rugby players with SCI	RT/Illuminated the different types of hope used by rugby players with SCI	NA/Chaos, quest, restitution
65/Smith et al. (2016)	Examine narratives of activism and identities amongst elite athletes with impairment	Semi-structured interviews, fieldwork observations/ITA/36 athletes with impairments	RT/Revealed two different activist identities within the context of disability sport and the social functions they might serve	NA/NA
66/Smith et al. (2023)	Expand the conflict literature by illustrating examples of conflict situations	Autobiographical accounts/DTA, ethnodrama/Two cricket players	Ethnodrama/Highlighted some of the determinants and consequences of conflicts between club captains and players	NA/NA
67/Sparkes (2023)	Explore the experiences of spouses and/or partners of rugby players with SCI	Life story interviews/TNA/Three partners of amateur rugby players with SCI	RT/Showcased how athletes’ SCI impact their partners	Time/NA
68/Sparkes and Partington (2003)	Highlight the potential benefit of narrative inquiry in sport psychology	Semi-structured interviews/CCA, HFA/Five river runners	RT/Suggested that describing flow is a relational performance shaped by narrative resources and differs according to gender	Competence, fear, luck/Epic, hero
69/Sparkes and Smith (2002)	Explore the experiences of rugby players with SCI	Thematic, informal life history interviews/narrative analysis/Four rugby players	RT/Illustrated how SCI impacts athletes’ life and identity	NA/Heroic masculinity, restitution
70/Spencer (2012)	Analyse how withstanding pain and injury is interpreted as elemental to MMA	Field notes, semi-structured interviews/Ethnography/42 professional and 3 amateur fighters.	RT/Illustrated the usage and function of narratives of despair and loss in MMA and the impact pain and injuries have on the fighters’ lives.	Asceticism, dominance/Despair, loss
71/Svensson and Stambulova (2022)	Explore the experiences of post-injury fear in a gymnast-coach dyad	Semi-structured interviews/HFSA/One gymnast and his coach	RT/Showed how a coach and a gymnast can experience the same situation differently and the possible impact of post-injury fear	Fear, identity, transitions/Hero’s journey, lost and regain, performance
72/Tamminen et al. (2017)	Explore conversations between adolescent athletes and parents after sport practices and competitions	Semi-structured interviews/ PA, SA, TNA/27 athletes and one of their parents	RT/Identified strategies to navigate difficult conversations and improve the conversation during the car ride home	Enjoying versus enduring the car ride home, privacy parenting and the car ride home/Performance
73/Tamminen et al. (2022)	Further explore the forward momentum type narrative	Semi-structured interviews/DNA/13 current and former competitive athletes	RT/Showcased the impact of sport structures and how injuries and illnesses can be seen as setbacks which have to be compensated	Seven narrative themes (i.e. goals and progress)/Forward momentum
74/Walsh et al. (2018)	Investigate women with young children’s experiences of physical activity	Semi-structured interviews/CNF, TNA/19 women from a physical activity intervention	RT/Demonstrated how future physical activity interventions can be modified to better fit traditionally hard to reach groups, such as mothers	Exercise identity as an additional identity, mum identity as an enabler for relatedness/NA
75/Williams (2018)	Explore how individuals with SCI and arthritis personally make sense of their exercise experiences	Semi-structured interviews/TNA/10 participants with SCI and 20 participants with arthritis	RT/Showed how the perception of exercise can influence individuals’ stories	NA/Chaos, exercise is medicine, exercise is restitution, restitution
76/Williams et al. (2018)	Illustrate the use of longitudinal integrated methods	Semi-structured interviews, timelining, observations/DNA/10 female and male participants with SCI	RT/Provided insights of activity-based rehabilitation and the relationship between health and wellbeing, and hope and acceptance	Exercise and restitution, exercise and pain, exercise and pleasure/Exercise is restitution
77/Åkesdotter et al. (2023)	Explore the experiences of a group of elite athletes with psychiatric disorders	Life story interviews, biographical mapping/SA TNA/five elite athletes	RT/Revealed the relationship between the performance narrative type and stigmatisation associated with psychiatric disorders in elite sport	A vow of silence, finding an alibi, wearing a mask/Performance

CA = Content analysis, CCA = Categorical content analysis, CL= Collective letter, CNF = Creative non-fiction, CV = CVs, DNA = Dialogical narrative analysis, DPA = Dialogical/performance analysis, DTA = Deductive thematic analysis, FPN = First person narrative, HAF = Holistic analysis of form, HCA = Holistic content analysis, HFA = Holistic form analysis, HFSA = Holistic form structural analysis, ITA = Inductive thematic analysis, NA= Not applicable, NASF = Narrative analysis of structure and form, NDA = Narrative discursive analysis, PA = Performative analysis, PAR = Paradigmatic analysis, RT = Realist tale, RTA = Reflexive thematic analysis, SA = Structural analysis, SCI = Spinal chord injury, SS= Short story, TNA = Thematic Narrative analysis, VR=Visual representation.

Bibliographical coding, appraisal, and analysis of included papers

All included articles were sorted alphabetically based on the first author’s and (if necessary) second author’s surname. Then, each article was assigned a biographical code (see Table 2) which will be used (appears in square brackets) to differentiate between included review papers and other references. The articles were then full-text read to assess their aim(s), data collection and analysis methods, participants, findings (conceptual, empirical, practical), significant contributions, as well as the narrative themes and types. No formal research quality appraisal was conducted as all included articles were peer-reviewed in well-respected journals within the field, thus ensuring an inherent level of research quality (see e.g. Crossen et al. 2023). Table 2 is the final outcome of our work, which we deem to be a representative overview of the designated period of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences. Next, to synthesise the data, the authors aimed to juxtapose the traditions of state-of-the-art critical reviews (see e.g. Stambulova and Wylleman 2019) with the conventions and historical roots of narrative inquiry. Therefore, it was fitting to use the perspective that narrative inquiry has made available to us by analysing the ‘whats’ and ‘hows’ of the articles included in this review. With this in mind, we engaged in a comprehensive and iterative coding process, meticulously examining each article to identify prevalent themes, features, characteristics, and common topics. This involved detailed hand-coding and pattern recognition, and was supported by thematic (see B. Smith 2016) and structural (see Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, and Zilber 1998) narrative analytic principles, to draw out significant insights and trends within the literature. Through this methodical approach, the authors were able to synthesise the data and provide a nuanced overview of the narrative research landscape in sport and exercise sciences.

Findings

Below we have arranged the findings into three sections; 1) the landscape of narrative research in sport and exercise science, 2) ‘how’ has narrative research been done, and 3) ‘what’ has narrative inquiry explored and revealed in sport and exercise sciences. The findings are organised to showcase the current topography of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences as well as highlighting research gaps and future challenges.

The landscape of narrative research in sport and exercise science

Our holistic analysis of form revealed that the last two decades of narrative research depicted a structure comparable to a progressive narrative type, or more specifically, a progression of slow ascension (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, and Zilber 1998). Between 2002 and 2012 only 10 articles were published. However, beginning in 2012, the prevalence of narrative articles began to trend upwards, culminating in a steep curve since 2018 whereby 56% (N = 43) of the papers in this study were published. In examining the rise of narrative inquiry in sport and exercise sciences, it is pertinent to understand researchers’ motivations. As such, when scrutinising research purpose, our analysis identified that narrative inquiry is valued for its inherent openness and reflexivity, rendering it particularly conducive to the exploration of topics revolving around life experiences (N = 27), identity construction (N = 14), and meaning (N = 7). Notably, 49% (N = 38) of research teams identified themselves as explorers, while 21% (N = 16) sought deeper comprehension. In contrast, a scant few adopted more post-positivistic language, such as analysing (N = 1) or comparing and contrasting (N = 1). While word choice is of course highly subjective, the shared language which underpins narrative researchers’ aims is noteworthy. Further, this common language speaks directly to the shared paradigm in which narrative researchers almost exclusively operated, as all included studies were either specifically positioned within ontological relativism and epistemological interpretivism or could be inferred as such if not directly stated. Finally, the cultural context in which research projects are situated will undoubtedly influence the perspectives and the research topics explored. Consequently, it is relevant to know where narrative researchers and study participants were geographically (and culturally) based. Considering that the roots of narrative inquiry developed in the United Kingdom [10, 13, 63, 64, 68, 69], it is perhaps unsurprising that 40% (N = 31) of the studies took place there. In total, 10 different countries were represented in this review, with 19 studies taking place in North America (12 Canada, 7 USA), 13 in continental Europe, and nine comprising multiple countries.

“How” has narrative research been done

Narrative research is a time-intensive process in terms of data collection and analysis; therefore, the sample sizes are understandably small. Further, considering that researchers who utilise narrative inquiry are prioritising personal truth over objective truth, a small number of participants is not only desirable, but arguably necessary. For the 77 studies, the mean was 11.1, median 5, and mode 2, while further subdivision of included participants highlighted that 32% (N = 25) of all studies had two or fewer participants, only five studies [46, 52, 65, 70, 72] included more than 30 participants, and 13 studies exclusively targeted females. To collect data, all but 10 research teams used interviews, either semi-structured (N = 33), life-story/history (N = 16), conversational (N = 6), visually aided/art-based (N = 9), or narrative-type (N = 3). In addition to interviews, some researchers incorporated other data collection methods such as observations (N = 5), questionnaires/surveys (N = 3), or biographical mapping (N = 2). For the 10 included studies not based on interviews, five [33, 35, 36, 37, 62, 66] analysed autobiographies, two [38, 39] examined digital sources, one [20] used letter writing, and one [42] used poems and short stories.

While placing stories and storytelling as the object of enquiry is what broadly separates

narrative analysis from other qualitative methods, there are many ways that researchers can conduct a narrative analysis. A common starting point was for researchers to identify themselves as either storytellers and/or storyanalysts and explore their data concerning what was said (i.e. content) and/or how the participants said it (i.e. structure). However, even though not all studies explicitly stated a position,² our investigation deduced that 62 of the studies took a storyanalyst perspective 10 were storytellers, and five used both perspectives. To analyse and interpret the data, narrative researchers drew upon a variety of tools made available to them during the last two decades, and while Table 2 is not an exhaustive list, it does speak to the diversity of this method. Thematic narrative analysis (N = 26) was the most frequently used analytic lens, followed by structural analysis (N = 17), creative non-fiction (N = 13), dialogical narrative analysis (N = 11), holistic analysis of form/holistic form structural analysis/holistic form analysis (N = 8), and content analysis/holistic content analysis/categorical content analysis (N = 10). Further, it was common (N = 24) for authors to apply more than one approach when analysing data (i.e. bracketing), for instance combining content and structural analysis together [e.g. 2, 3, 7, 43]. Within the reviewed articles, researchers frequently identified narrative themes (N = 17), narrative types (N = 30), or both (N = 21), while nine articles did not specify either narrative themes or narrative types. However, seven of the articles not specifying narrative themes or types were presented from a storyteller perspective, where analysis ‘is’ the story, and the representation differs significantly from that of realist tales. Of the 62 articles deemed to use a storyanalyst position, 12 articles identified narrative themes, 30 identified narrative types, 18 of the articles discussed both, while two articles did not identify narrative themes or types of narratives. Finally, when representing the findings, realist tales were used in 73% of the articles (N = 56), while the remaining 21 articles used a variety of creative analytical practices.

“What” has narrative inquiry explored and revealed in sport and exercise sciences

Within the 77 narrative studies, 15 focused on exercise, health, and/or physical activity, while 61 were sport related (with 16 being elite sport). Moreover, deeper analysis highlighted that 51 of the included articles had aims categorised within three areas: 1) meaning and identity construction [1, 6, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 24, 27, 37, 38, 44, 47, 48, 51, 56, 61], 2) disability and/or impairment [1, 13, 14, 17, 20, 31, 50, 52, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 75, 77], and 3) athletic career pathways and/or in-career transitions [7, 10, 15, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 29, 30, 39, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. Other key research foci in this review appearing more than three times included children and/or youth [3, 11, 19, 50, 57, 72, 74], pain/injury [20, 24, 39, 70, 71, 76], disordered eating [8, 9, 33, 40, 43], and coach/athlete relationships [3, 19, 42, 67]. Researchers engaging with narrative inquiry have made significant contributions to sport and exercise sciences, and our examination highlighted the depth and breadth of what is possible when researchers listen, analyse, and interpret the stories permeating the world in which we live. Despite narrative analysis offering no set rules for how the process ‘should’ unfold, 66% (N = 51) of the articles scaffolded their contributions upon the identification of narrative types.³

The most frequent narrative type identified in the reviewed articles was performance (N = 26), a highly relatable narrative type regardless of sport type or geographical location, and one identified amongst elite athletes [e.g. 2, 10, 33], professionals [e.g. 23, 26], and juniors [e.g. 57, 72]. The performance narrative type emphasises that high-performing athletes’ identities and sense of self are closely (if not entirely) related to their athletic performance as highlighted here; ‘for me, it’s natural if the training goes well, I feel good, and if the training is harder, it’s harder for me emotionally too’ (Barker-Ruchti et al. 2019, 694). In many cases, the performance narrative type is what drives athletes to elite accomplishments. However, the concern of many researchers is the potentially harmful side-effects that can follow this singular focus, such as disordered eating [e.g. 8, 33, 43], mental health issues following retirement [e.g. 29, 39], or playing through injury [20, 39, 71]. Furthermore, an important concept introduced within this narrative type adopted from health and illness research is narrative wreckage (see A. W. Frank 1995), which is the idea that the performance narrative type functions well for athletes, until it no longer does, and the athlete might not have the resources to deal with the narrative disruption. Some researchers have suggested that narrative wreckage occurs because the stories that people tell do not fit with the culturally dominant narrative types available (McLeod 1997), so when an elite athlete retires or career ends due to injury, how do they story their life when their identity has changed significantly? While all athletes navigate differently, and some do not experience any narrative wreckage at all (see narrative flexibility below), for others, the consequences can be severe (Douglas and Carless 2009).

The second most common narrative type identified in this review was the relational narrative type (N = 12), a narrative type that emerges in stark contrast to the performance narrative type,

emphasising ‘interpersonal dimensions rather than the separate self’ (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, and Zilber 1998, 87), is open rather than rigid, and adopts an ‘empathetic and attentive other-orientation instead of self-orientation’ (Douglas and Carless 2009, 223). Consequently, the relational narrative type appeared as a counter narrative that some athletes adopted making them less vulnerable to moments of narrative wreckage. To highlight, professional athletes telling relational narratives said that while sport was a big part of their life, they were more than just athletes; ‘I’m a positive and social person, I smile a lot. If we have trips abroad I try to talk to foreigners … so that everyone would have a good time and it would be nice to spend time together’ (Ronkainen and Ryba 2020, 554). Although the relational narrative type was found in active athletes, it was often observed that athletes transitioned from the performance narrative type to the relational narrative type, illustrating narrative flexibility (Sparkes and Smith 2002). Narrative flexibility refers to the ability of individuals to shift between narratives when constructing their stories, which is likely (but not necessarily) due to contextual changes (Ramos, Svensson, and Stambulova in press). This adaptability allows individuals to navigate complex experiences, make sense of diverse perspectives, and effectively communicate their experiences to others. In the case of high achieving athletes, having a level of narrative flexibility can be beneficial as they are able to story their life and experiences outside of sport and performance, ideally avoiding periods of narrative wreckage (Ramos, Svensson, and Stambulova in press).

The restitution narrative type, which follows the basic assumption that we can/will return to a previous state of living and underpinned by an expectation of recovery and hope, was identified eight times, and appeared repeatedly for people living with permanent or semi-permanent disability [e.g. 1, 63, 64, 67, 69, 75, 76]. Intuitively, it is logical that this was the narrative type identified by researchers working with athletes and/or people living with varying levels of disability as it gives people meaning, purpose, and a goal in the face of new circumstances. To underscore, one participant stated that, ‘I’d give everything I had to try and get back up and get walking … I don’t think I should accept it, there is always hope. If I didn’t have that hope, I wouldn’t carry on’ (Williams 2018, 229). However, a concern from researchers would be that what happens to a person when a present condition (i.e. spinal cord injury, chronic arthritis, etc.) becomes permanent and their life can no longer be framed around restitution? Further, while this narrative type is considered more desirable than the chaos narrative type [e.g. 36, 64, 75], it can prevent people from accepting their disability and exploring avenues that might be psychosocially and/or physically beneficial (Perrier, Smith, and Latimer-Cheung 2013). Finally, researchers in health and exercise research have also pointed to the quest narrative type [e.g. 1, 2, 32, 36, 63, 64] as being highly positive when people are open to growth and development in a variety of ways (B. Smith and Sparkes 2009a).

Notably, the aims of researchers engaging with narrative inquiry were not always to identify a narrative type as 34% (N = 26) of the articles engaged with narrative in different ways. For instance, it was quite common for authorial teams to examine and interpret their data (i.e. thematic narrative analysis, structural analysis), identify narrative themes, and illuminate the findings via a realist tale [3, 4, 5, 28, 46, 47, 53, 61, 67, 74]. In this way, the authors were acting as storyanalysts and primarily interested in what stories were told, not how the participants told them. The narrative themes varied widely and were context specific. Within these 10 articles, 37 themes were identified, but never more than once. Conversely, for the seven research teams that chose to act as storytellers and not identify narrative themes or narrative types [6, 13, 40, 42, 50, 62, 66], the objective was to present the human experience through stories designed to arouse strong feelings and emotions within the reader. Further, this approach is intended to increase the readability and relatability for those both inside and outside of academia. For example, ethnodramas present findings similarly to a movie script [62, 66], portrait vignettes read like a page of a novel [6, 42, 50], while first person narratives [13, 40] stay close to the participants own words and experiences.

Critical reflections

Our state-of-the-art critical review of the last two decades of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences reveals a sharp increase in the methodology’s application, specifically since 2018 whereby 56% of the articles included in this review were published. Our analysis demonstrates that narrative inquiry links researchers together through an open ontological (i.e. relativism) and epistemological (i.e. interpretivism) perspective that underpins their philosophical worldview. Consequently, narrative researchers aim to understand personal truth, and not ‘the truth’ as others might strive to do (Monforte and Smith 2023). Narrative researchers share a similar language unique to the method, often acting as ‘explorers’ and uncover narrative themes and types. Further, all narrative researchers place the stories their participants tell under investigation through a plethora of analytical lenses and techniques with intentions of sharing meaningful life experiences. However, as narrative inquiry has gained a foothold within sport and exercise sciences, our review also uncovered tensions and inconsistencies that must be addressed.

Even though narrative inquiry is linked through its focus on stories, a key tenet is that it is non-prescriptive and the researchers of the eight review-type papers included in this study intentionally avoid placing parameters upon those who wish to engage with the method. For instance, Monforte and Smith (2023) suggest that ‘narrative research offers no overall rules about suitable materials or modes of analysis, or the best level at which to study stories’ (p. 115), while Holstein and Gubrium (2012) state that there is wide variety in what actually constitutes narrative analysis. Yet, any mode of inquiry must have boundaries, and to emphasise this point Chase (2018) highlights two key issues:

First, when researchers use the term indiscriminately, describing any account, object, or performance as narrative without explaining how it is narrative, the concept becomes meaningless. Second, without a sense of the concept’s boundaries, nonnarrative ways of communicating … are marginalized in our understanding of social life. (p. 949)

Therefore, and almost paradoxically, the question becomes how we balance the openness that narrative inquiry can offer while at the same time eliminate the idea that anything goes? While the solutions to some of the tensions and inconsistencies uncovered in this review are inherently complex, we do offer some reflections below to help ensure the meaning of narrative does not become meaning(less).

Inconsistent terminology

Smith and Sparkes, (2009b) are clear that ‘people tell stories, not narratives’ (p. 2), and while humans rely upon the narrative structures that are culturally available to them, it is highly unlikely they are conscious of this concept in their daily life. Therefore, narrative researchers gather stories from their participants, and it is up to them to interpret and apply the principles of narrative analysis. However, in the reviewed articles we noted that the words narrative and story/stories were often not differentiated. ‘The analysis focuses not so much on what is in the narratives, but on how the narratives are told’ [26], ‘the yogic body tells particular narratives … ’ [32], or ‘Imari and Marcus both tell sink or swim narratives … ’ [7], are a few examples of many where authors are not clear on this point. In principle, if researchers are not correctly understanding this foundational concept, then it is easy to see how the lines between what is and what is not narrative research becomes blurry.

Similarly, the way in which authors depicted and represented narratives, narrative typologies, narrative types, and narrative themes often lacked consistency. First, throughout the articles it was common for authors to use narrative, narrative type, and narrative typology interchangeably, which at face value might not appear to be problematic. Yet, one obvious issue is simply that narrative, narrative type, and narrative typology could be three different things with three different meanings, or perhaps they are supposed to be one in the same. However, when few people have been intentional about this terminology, doubt will remain. Still, a potentially larger issue is that this intersection ultimately leads to confusion when we begin to unravel the narratives, narrative types, and narrative typologies in the reviewed articles. Within this study, a clear hierarchy developed whereby three narrative types were repeatedly identified (e.g. performance, relational, and restitution). Conversely, there were many other narrative types that were only identified once, were highly contextualised, and when taking a discerning position, it could be questioned whether they were narrative types at all. This is not to undercut any of the work researchers have done, rather, it is to bring to light an issue within narrative inquiry in the sport and exercise sciences.

To elucidate further, identifiable narrative types (we will use this term to encompass

narratives, narrative types, and narrative typologies) provide a template regardless of the specific details in the stories people tell and the contexts in which they live. The restitution narrative type is a well-known example whereby people with illness, injury, or perhaps an eating disorder might tell different stories but adhere to the same narrative type. Relatedly, the CEO of a fortune 500 company might identify with the performance narrative, even though the context of business is vastly different from a high-level sporting career (see Taylor and Carroll 2010). Conversely, what appears often in the articles included in this study is that many narrative types identified are: 1) highly specific, and 2) might in fact be storylines rather than a narrative type. For example, narrative types such as ‘no I in team’ [21], ‘searching for the spotlight’ [30], ‘the long-term non-exerciser’ [52], or ‘more to me’ [24], speaks to the specific context in which they were identified, therefore the relatability to other aspects of the lived experience is less clear. Further, one narrative type termed the ‘Cinderella story’ [1] is specifically called a story, not a narrative type. Within this perspective, if everything is a narrative, then as Chase (2018) suggested, the term narrative becomes meaningless.

To address the above stated tensions, namely the blurring of narrative types with highly contextualised narrative types and/or storylines and inconsistent terminology, we suggest negotiating the language based upon terms and frameworks that have already been used. First, we caution researchers to be more discerning when constructing narratives from their data and to consider more critically the differentiation between stories and narratives. To aid in this process, the framework of big, middle, and small stories (Griffin and Phoenix 2015; Phoenix and Sparkes 2009) could be considered as it helps to categorise stories based on their scope and context, thus facilitating a structured analysis. By maintaining this distinction, researchers can systematically identify and analyse patterns within each story type to construct broader narratives, ensuring clarity in differentiating between individual storylines and constructed narrative types.

Second, we recommend that there needs to be a return to the notion of a metanarrative (B. Smith and Sparkes 2005), the idea being that there are indeed a finite number of higher-level narratives that people, regardless of context, follow when storying their lives. Invariably, however, the question then becomes, ‘how many metanarratives are there?’ Admittedly, while there will most likely never be a consensus answer to this question (nor are we searching for one), as a starting point we propose people construct their stories around; 1) striving towards a new state (quest), 2) seeking a return to a previous state of being (restitution), 3) maintaining an achieved level of contentment (order), 4) experiencing a gradual deterioration over time (decay) or 5) lacking any order at all (chaos). Therefore, if we acknowledge that there is indeed the highest order of narratives (e.g. five metanarratives), then other narrative types can be referred to as such and are a subtype of one of the five metanarratives (i.e. a performance narrative type could be a derivative of the quest). Finally, we offer that highly contextualised narrative types be called context-situated narratives, acknowledging that while they may be relatable, they lack broad transferability. For example, ‘searching for the spotlight’ [30] would be a context-situated narrative, perhaps connecting to the performance narrative type and quest metanarrative. In any case, this proposition brings the potential for narrative researchers to share common language, give more meaning to narratives that are repeatedly identified in research, and also differentiate narrative types that are specific to a particular context or environment in which they were discovered.

Tensions and inconsistencies within analysis and representation

A strength of narrative inquiry is that it allows a wide berth for researchers to analyse and interpret their data. Within this review, over 20 different analytical lenses were adopted by researchers to examine the data as storyanalysts or storytellers, and narrative themes were commonly generated to either structure the metanarrative or narrative types, and/or present the stories via creative analytical practices or realist tales. Yet, even though narrative analysis is an open analytical technique with recommendations rather than rules, our review of the last two decades of narrative inquiry demonstrates tensions and inconsistencies within the process.

A major tension that became evident during the screening process was that in many cases the line between a narrative analysis and other qualitative methodologies (i.e. thematic analysis) is somewhat unclear. Primarily, this tension relates to authors adhering to a narrative analysis but falling short of interpreting how the data is narrative or what this narrative might actually mean (Chase 2018)? In other words, if the authors do not engage with the theoretical aspects of narrative, then how do we differentiate between narrative analysis and other approaches? Importantly, to be included in this review a primary inclusion criterion was the authors’ engagement with narrative discourse (see Monforte and Smith 2023), which all 77 included articles did well. The issue, rather, appeared when reviewing the 188 articles that made it through the first screening round and identifying that many of the excluded 111 papers either did not engage with stories, did not engage with narrative discourse, or both. Principally, this problem did not often appear in the literature review or methods sections as most research teams were clear on their positions, referenced relevant narrative theorists, and utilised a narrative methodology in the analysis process. Rather, there were many examples (i.e. Budden et al. 2022; Eke et al. 2020; Erickson, Backhouse, and Carless 2017) in related discussions whereby narrative discourse were rarely mentioned, or in some cases, the word narrative never appeared at all. Crucially, we are not discounting the work done or minimising any contributions that authors have made. Nevertheless, this review has revealed that this essential aspect of narrative inquiry can (and has) been neglected in published articles within the field.

Subsequently, another inconsistency rests in the methodological positions that researchers adopt (i.e. storyteller vs. storyanalyst, or both) and the perspective of whether they will examine the whats and/or hows of stories and narratives. These methodological perspectives appeared in Smith & Sparkes, 2009a, 2009b) narrative review-type papers, which built upon the work of A. Frank (2007, 1995), highlighting that researchers take varying perspectives when performing the analysis. The most common perspective adopted was that of a storyanalyst [N = 62] whereby researchers would scrutinise the content (i.e. what), the structure (i.e. how), or both. However, within these positions our analysis showcased that authors were somewhat inconsistent between their stated position and then how the findings were represented. First, there were numerous examples [e.g. 17, 23, 59] where authors would state that they were taking the position of storyanalysts, yet the findings were represented as if they acted as storytellers. Second, there were very few instances where authors operated exclusively as storytellers [42, 50], meaning they truly embraced Frank’s (1995) position that ‘thinking with stories takes the story as already complete; there is no going beyond it’ (p. 23), and as a result there was little discussion concerning the stories showcased in the article. Further, most authorial teams acting as storytellers also took the position of a storyanalyst [e.g. 6, 16, 60, 62], even if it was not specifically stated. Finally, a third tension was that while authors applied multiple narrative analysis lenses to interact with the data, it was hard to distinguish how a particular procedure led to an outwardly different conclusion. For instance, there were many examples where authors used different techniques (i.e. HFSA [11], a SA [2], or a NASF [22]) but the end results were similar, in this case the identification of a performance narrative.

Research gaps, future challenges, and recommendations

Our state-of-the-art critical review over the past two decades of narrative research in sport and exercise sciences highlights a maturing field that has significantly advanced our understanding of human experiences. Despite the growth and methodological diversity, several gaps and challenges remain that warrant attention. To address these issues and promote further development, we propose a series of recommendations focused on methodological rigour, theoretical and conceptual clarity, and empirical and applied expansion. These recommendations aim to enhance the clarity of narrative inquiry practices, negotiate consistency in terminology and analysis, and encourage broader application across diverse contexts within sport and exercise sciences. Furthermore, they emphasise the importance of establishing boundaries within narrative inquiry to maintain its integrity and respect the discipline’s unique methodological and theoretical foundations.

1. The language used in narrative research should be better negotiated to prevent confusion and misunderstandings. We propose that the highest order narratives be referred to as metanarratives, such as restitution, quest, order, decay, and chaos. The level below are narrative types, a subtype of one of the five metanarratives and maintains a high degree of transferability to other contexts. Finally, context-situated narratives are specific to a given situation and lack broad transferability.

2. The line between when a story ends and a narrative begins can be hazy, and there were many instances in the reviewed articles whereby identified narrative types were more likely to be storylines. Therefore, we urge researchers to be clearer in their differentiation between narratives and stories, and using the big, middle, and small story framework can be a useful approach (Griffin and Phoenix 2015).

3. For researchers new to narrative inquiry, the diversity of analytical techniques can be daunting. We suggest simplifying this by focusing on the two most common approaches used in the reviewed articles: analysing the content (i.e. what is being said) or the structure of stories (i.e. how they are being said). Researchers can also combine both perspectives using bracketing. While researchers are free to choose any method, promoting these two approaches can make narrative inquiry more appealing and accessible.

4. There is an imbalance in the research, with only 20% of the articles focusing on exercise, health, and physical activity. Researchers are encouraged to expand narrative research in these areas, particularly investigating the experiences of youth, children, the elderly, and marginalised communities. Additionally, exploring the impact of physical activity on mental health and chronic disease management could provide valuable insights. Broadening the scope of narrative research will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of diverse experiences in health, physical activity, and exercise contexts.

5. The vast majority of the reviewed studies involved researchers and participants based in Western countries. To enhance the global applicability and richness of narrative research, we recommend that future studies actively seek to include participants from diverse cultural backgrounds and non-Western contexts. This will help to uncover a wider array of narrative experiences and perspectives, providing a more comprehensive understanding of sport, exercise, and health across different cultural and socio-economic environments.

6. We believe that a deeper understanding of narrative characters, archetypal characters (i.e. brute, conformist, egoist, citizen), and character roles (e.g. the protagonist, antagonist) offers potential for applied practitioners in their work. Researchers state that ‘where there is an identifiable genre, plot, and character, there is usually a narrative’ (Papathomas 2016, 40), yet character development is scantly discussed in any of the reviewed articles. For instance, could it not be relevant for a coach to understand the characters the team needs to be successful considering that not everyone can be the hero?

7. The performance narrative type is well-established in sport and exercise science literature, but it is time to understand the practical applications. Beyond identifying its existence, researchers should expose athletes to the dangers of narrative wreckage (e.g. depression, identity loss) and strategies to mitigate these challenges. Promoting cultural narrative diversity and encouraging narrative flexibility may enrich athletes’ experiences. Practitioners can also actively use narratives in their interventions to support athlete well-being and resilience. Integrating these approaches can provide a more holistic understanding and practical application of narratives in sport and exercise contexts.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Robert T. Book

Robert T. Book Jr is an associate professor in the Department of Sports, Physical Education, and Outdoor Studies at the University of South-Eastern Norway. His research focuses on athletic talent development environments, career pathways, cultural transitions, and narrative methodology.

Joar Svensson

Joar Svensson is a lecturer in the School of Health and Welfare at Halmstad University. His work as a researcher has focused on career development and motivation whereas his applied work concentrates on peak performance in elite athletes and Michelin starred chefs.

Natalia Stambulova

Natalia Stambulova is a professor in the School of Health and Welfare at Halmstad University. Her robust research portfolio pertains to the full span of the athletic career, with a primary focus on elite sport, career transitions, and crisis intervention.

Notes

1. This includes an expansion and re-examination of our search process following reviewer and editor feedback during the revision process.

2. Authors are not required to state their position, and this methodological position was a development that happened over time, becoming more ingrained following Smith and Sparkes’ recommendations (2009a; 2009b).

3. Researchers would either identify an undiscovered narrative type, add to the robustness of a previously identified narrative type, or both.