The Alignment of Local Borders

Abstract

Even as diverse bordering processes have proliferated well beyond the edges of contemporary states, local understandings of international borders have aligned with national expectations. Historically borderland residents were often granted leeway in their cross-border activities and this provided an initial acceptance of the concept of national borders that continued even as boundaries became more rigid. Among the indigenous Tohono O'odham varying interpretations on the effective extent of the US–Mexico border co-existed for well over a century. Where the geopolitical border and the understanding of local communities differed, the latter was generally of greater importance in defining effective limits. National and international dynamics gradually reversed this, however, merging diverse border interpretations. External forces built upon local distinctions to achieve acceptance of the concept of a border among a group that initially had no vested interest in such a division and then narrowed that flexible interpretation to one more accommodating to national priorities premised on a strict linear conception of the extent of sovereignty. The coalescing of multiple layers of distinction in the vicinity of national boundaries sheds light on scale-based conflict over bordering and points to the overwhelming priority given to homogenizing forces and uniformity of control in the modern state.

Extracto

Aunque los diversos procesos fronterizos han proliferado mucho más allá de los extremos de los Estados contemporáneos, los conceptos locales de las fronteras internacionales se ajustan a las expectativas nacionales. Habitualmente se toleraba cierta libertad de acción para que las personas que vivían en zonas fronterizas realizasen sus actividades transfronterizas y esto llevaba a una aceptación inicial del concepto de fronteras nacionales que continuó incluso cuando la movilidad fronteriza pasó a ser más estricta. Para los indígenas tohono o'odham coexisten desde hace más de un siglo diferentes interpretaciones de la extensión real de la frontera entre EE.UU. y México. Cuando el concepto de la frontera geopolítica difería de su interpretación por parte de las comunidades locales, esta última era generalmente mucho más importante a la hora de definir los límites eficaces. Sin embargo, las dinámicas nacionales e internacionales cambiaron esto gradualmente al fusionar las diferentes interpretaciones de frontera. Las fuerzas externas reconocieron las distinciones locales para lograr que se aceptase el concepto de una frontera entre un grupo que al principio no tenía ningún interés directo en una división tal, y luego estrecharon esta interpretación flexible a una más adaptada a las prioridades nacionales que dependen de una concepción lineal y estricta del alcance de soberanía. La integración de las diferentes interpretaciones en las proximidades de las fronteras nacionales arroja luz sobre el conflicto basado en las escalas en cuanto a las fronteras y pone de relieve la abrumadora prioridad que se da a las fuerzas homogeneizadoras y la uniformidad del control en un Estado moderno.

儘管多样化的边境界定过程，已扩张并超越了当代国家的疆界，但地方对于国际边界的理解，仍然与国家的期待一致。历史上，边境地带居民的跨境活动经常被授与通融的馀地，而这也促成了对于国界概念的最初认可，即便国界越来越僵固，此一认可仍然持续存在着。托赫诺奥哈姆族的原住民对于美墨边界有效性的各种诠释，共同存在超过一个世纪。虽然地缘政治的疆界与在地社群的理解总是不尽相同，但一般来说，在地社群的理解对于界定实质限制而言较为重要。然而国家与国际的动态却日益改变此一现象，逐渐同化了分歧的边界诠释。外部力量以在地的界分为基础，用以促成原先对此一界分不抱有既定兴趣的社群接受此一界分，并进一步将具有弹性的诠释，窄化成为根据主权范畴的绝对线性概念、且更符合国家优先顺序的单一解释。多重层级的界分在国境周围的聚合，清楚显现了以尺度为根据的划界冲突，并表明了给予当代国家同质化驱力以及单一控制的不可抗拒之优先性。

Résumé

Au fur et à mesure que divers processus frontaliers se sont répandus bien au-delà des limites des états contemporains, la compréhension locale des frontières internationales s'est alignée sur les attentes nationales. Historiquement, on a souvent accordé une certaine flexibilité aux frontaliers en ce qui concerne leurs activités transfrontalières et cela a fourni une acceptation initiale de la notion de frontières nationales qui a persisté alors même que les frontières sont devenues plus rigides. Parmi la population indigène tohon o'odham, il y avait pendant plus d'un siècle diverses interprétations de l’étendue effective de la frontière americano-mexicaine. Là où la frontière géo-politique et la compréhension des communautés locales se sont différées, cette dernière était généralement revêtue de plus d'importance quant à la définition des limites effectives. Cependant, les dynamiques nationale et internationale l'ont progressivement renversée, fusionnant diverses interprétations des frontières. Des forces externes ont consolidé les spécificités locales afin de parvenir à l'acceptation de la notion de frontière parmi un groupe qui, dans un premier temps, n'avait aucun intérêt particulier dans une telle division et, dans un deuxième temps, a rétréci cette interprétation souple pour une interprétation plus conciliante vis-à-vis des priorités nationales et fondée sur une notion strictement linéaire de la portée de la souveraineté. Le fusionnement de mutiples couches de distinction à proximité des frontières nationales met en lumière le conflit en fonction de l’échelle par rapport aux frontières et indique la priorité majeure accordée aux forces conduisant à l'homogénéisation et à l'uniformité du contrôle dans l’état moderne.

Keywords:

• Borders
• bordering
• transboundary
• state space
• nation-states
• Tohono O'odham

Acknowledgements

I would like to give special thanks to members and representatives of the Tohono O'odham Nation who contributed to my understanding of their experiences with the border. Further appreciation is extended to many individuals, including editors and anonymous reviewers who commented on early drafts of this paper and provided invaluable feedback.

Notes

1. In this paper ‘Papago’ is used to emphasize historical identity and accurately reflect citations. ‘Tohono O'odham’ is used in both historical context (where it was never fully abandoned by those to whom it refers) and contemporary settings. When the context is clear, the term ‘O'odham’ can also stand alone.

2. Human subject research oversight for these projects was provided by the Institutional Review Boards at Arizona State University and The Ohio State University respectively as well as the Tohono O'odham Nation tribal government. For an account of approvals and relevant personal/work experiences see Madsen (2005, pp. 29–36, 223–226) and Madsen (2008).

3. In reciprocation for usage of the newspaper archives the author helped organize and index the holdings as they were reviewed. US government documents at this location were duplicate but incomplete copies of the National Archives—mostly from Laguna Nigel, California. In 2010, Venito Garcia files were transferred to the Tohono O'odham Cultural Center and Museum, Himdag Ki: Heki˘hu, Hemu, Im B I-Ha'ap (Culture House: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow) in Topawa, Arizona. The National Archives in California moved that same year from Laguna Nigel to Riverside.

4. Schulze (2008, pp. 24–26) also reviews recent debates over scale within the discipline of history in terms of the continued relevance of the nation-state to indigenous border residents.

5. The Sonoran Desert covers the western half of Sonora, the southwest quarter of Arizona, and smaller portions of the Californias.

6. Bacoachi is located just over 100 miles southeast of today's Tohono O'odham Reservation and is not a part of any of the village systems shown in Figure 2.

7. Although geographically an outlier, Pozo Verde is culturally an important part of the Tecolote village system. Its location is represented by the easternmost arrow of the Tecolote village system in Figure 2.