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Abstract
Migration policies of Morocco face diverse challenges such as the maintenance of close ties with Moroccans abroad, enhancing development through emigration but also the management of irregular migration to and through Morocco. Since 1990s, the official discourse of the state vis-à-vis the diaspora ceased to be against the integration of Moroccans in host countries and the state initiated new institutions to forge transnational ties. With its new institutions addressing the needs of Moroccans abroad, the Moroccan state prioritized the human rights of their emigrants at least at discursive level. As the state continues to have interest in controlling remittances and channelling them into investment, emigration remains high on the political agenda. Concurrently, another major concern for the authorities has been control of irregular border crossings through Morocco. The Moroccan state, pressured by the EU, enhanced its border controls through technical and financial assistance by the EU and introduced new laws and institutions to deal with immigration. This process arguably resulted in coercive measures taken against irregular border crossings, hence criticized as undermining the human rights of irregular migrants. This article explains an almost simultaneous emergence of institutions dealing with emigration and immigration aspects of international mobility in Morocco throughout 1990s and 2000s. It argues that ongoing emigration experience and close relations with emigrants may have positive impact on discourses on the treatment of immigrants within the country and eventually on immigration policies.
Acknowledgements
Different parts of this research were funded by Bucerius Ph.D. Scholarship Programme in Migration Studies, to KOÇ-KAM (Koç University Center for Gender Studies), and by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, 2214B Joint Ph.D. Abroad Scholarship. I also would like to thank editors of the special issue and anonymous referees for their contributions and comments on earlier versions of this paper.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. Refugee status determination in Morocco has been processed by UNHCR. Until recent changes, recognized refugees are provided a refugee card by UNHCR. The card, in principle, protects refugees from deportation but does not give access to residence permits and work permits in the country (Elmadmad, Citation2011, p. 4).
2. Six interviews conducted in late January and February 2012 by Dominique Jolivet in the context of the EUMAGINE project are used for the analysis. The author herself conducted over 20 expert interviews during her fieldwork, over three visits to Morocco between April and October 2012.
3. MRE en chiffre (Moroccans Residing abroad in numbers), Ministry in Charge of Moroccans Living Abroad and Migration Affairs (11 October 2013), retrieved from http://marocainsdumonde.gov.ma/le-minist%C3%A8re/mre-en-chiffres.aspx.
4. Entretien avec Anis Birou, Ministre chargé des Marocains résidant à l'étranger et des affaires de la migration (Interview with Anis Birou, Minister in charge Moroccans residing abroad and immigration affairs). (2014, January 4). Le Matin. Retreived from http://www.lematin.ma/journal/2014/entretien-avec-anis-birou-ministre-charge-des-marocains-residant--a-l-etranger-et-des-affaires-de-la-migration_-nous-avons-prevu-un-plan-d-action-pour-favoriser-l-integration-socioeconomique-et-culturelle--des-immigres-regularises-/194440.html.
5. Referred as the Foundation, hereafter.
6. fr. Ministere Chargee des Marocaines Residant a l’Etranger, referred as the Ministry, hereafter. Moroccans Residing Abroad (fr. Moroccains Residant a l’Etranger ) is referred as MRE, hereafter.
7. Discours de S.M le Roi Mohammed VI à l’occasion du 48ème anniversaire de la Révolution du Roi et du Peuple et de la Fête de la jeunesse (2001, August 21). Retrieved from http://www.abhatoo.net.ma/maalama-textuelle/developpement-economique-et-social/developpement-social/discours-et-interviews-officiels/discours-et-interviews-de-s-m-le-roi-mohammed-vi/discours-de-s-m-le-roi-mohammed-vi-a-l-occasion-du-48eme-anniversaire-de-la-revolution-du-roi-et-du-peuple-et-de-la-fete-de-la-jeunesse-le-lundi-21-aout-2001.
8. fr. Le Conseil de la Communauté Marocaine à l'Etranger, referred as ‘CCME’ hereafter.
9. Dahir no. 1-07-208 (official gazette no. 560, 7 February 2008).
10. See Article 163 of the Moroccan Constitution adopted on 1 July 2011.
11. Although the impact on diaspora policies is beyond the scope of this article, it is observed that associations of Moroccans in Europe are critical of the Council for not pursuing the rights of MRE. See Mraizika (Citation2013).
12. All non-English quotes have been translated into English by the author and are referred to by the acronym TBA.
13. Interview with M. Abdallah Boussouf, ccme.org.ma. Retreived from http://www.ccme.org.ma/fr/entretiens/30369.
14. Welcome in Arabic.
15. See www.e-madrassa.ma.
16. Interview with the Foundation., interview 3.
17. Fr. Loi no:02-03 relative à l'entrée et au séjour des étrangers au Royaume du Maroc, à l'émigration et l'immigration irrégulières.
18. Article 26 of the Law no:02-03.
19. see for instance Eriger en priorite la lutte contre les reseaux de traite des etres humaines (To erect human trafficking network is priority), (12 November 2003). L’opinion.
20. In 2006, 11,000 people were employed for migration management within the Ministry of Interior and 4500 of them are directly responsible of surveillance of frontiers (Elmadmad, Citation2007). 4000 of them are in the Mediterranean, North Atlantic and Atlantic coasts. Only 500 are employed to control the land border with neighbouring countries.
21. Interview with Khalid Zerouali, the Head of Directorship for Migration and Surveillance of Borders, ‘La question migratoire est inscite dans une vision strategique. L’approche securitaire a ses limites’. (The question of migration is inscribed to a strategic vision. Security approach has its limits). (24 October 2005). Liberation.
22. ‘Baisse de 37% des embarcations de clandestins durant les 8 premiers mois de 2005’ (‘37% decline in clandestine embarkations in the first 8 months of 2005’) Liberation, 08.09.2005.
23. fr. Conseil national des droits de l’Homme (CNDH), referred as CNDH hereafter.
24. See Royal discourse in the occasion of 38th Anniversary of the Green March, (6 November 2013) retrieved from http://www.map.co.ma/fr/discours-messages-sm-le-roi/sm-le-roi-adresse-un-discours-la-nation-l%E2%80%99occasion-du-38eme-anniversaire.
25. ‘The exceptional operation of regularization concerns foreigners with spouses from Moroccan nationality living together for at least two years, foreigners with foreign spouses in legal status in Morocco and living together for at least four years, children from the two previous cases, foreigners with employment contracts effective for at least two years, foreigners justifying five years of continuous residence in Morocco and foreigners with serious illnesses who had arrived the country before 31 December 2013.’ (TBA). Le Maroc lance du 1er janvier au 31 décembre 2014 une opération exceptionnelle de régularisation des étrangers en situation irrégulière. (Morocco launch from January 1st to December 31st 2014, an exceptional operation of regularization of foreigners in irregular situation). (2013, November 13). marocainsdumonde.gov.ma. Retrieved from http://www.marocainsdumonde.gov.ma/actions-du-minist%C3%A8re/le-maroc-lance-du-1er-janvier-au-31-d%C3%A9cembre-2014-une-op%C3%A9ration-exceptionnelle-de-r%C3%A9gularisation-des-%C3%A9trangers-en-situation-irr%C3%A9guli%C3%A8re.aspx.
26. Entretien avec Anis Birou, ministre chargé des Marocains résidant à l'étranger et des affaires de la migration (Interview with Anis Birou, Minister in charge Moroccans residing abroad and immigration affairs). (2014, January 4). Le Matin. Retreived from http://www.lematin.ma/journal/2014/entretien-avec-anis-birou-ministre-charge-des-marocains-residant--a-l-etranger-et-des-affaires-de-la-migration_-nous-avons-prevu-un-plan-d-action-pour-favoriser-l-integration-socioeconomique-et-culturelle--des-immigres-regularises-/194440.html.
27. It is interesting to note that both CNDH and the Council are led by Driss El Yazami, a well-known human rights activist in Morocco, which to a certain extent explains the similar attitude of these two institutions towards human rights of immigrants in Morocco.