Collective reincorporation of FARC-EP and social and solidarity economies: beyond moral imagination

ABSTRACT

Collective productive projects are an effective strategy to bring reconciliation and development to the most remote parts of the national territory. Incipient rural development was recognised in the peace agreement, signed between the Colombian government and the Armed Forces of Colombia People’s Army (FARC-EP), as one of the causes of the armed conflict. However, social margins and precarious conditions are not exclusive to the countryside; exclusion also occurs in urban centres. Using ethnographic methods, we visited three areas of reincorporation to identify the socio-economic practices of collective productive projects. The findings suggest that the social solidarity economy is a promising alternative led by FARC-EP ex-combatants and host communities to resist socio-economic exclusion.

KEYWORDS:

• Collective turn
• social and solidarity economy
• host community
• FARC-EP
• territorial development
• DDR

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ Gobierno de Colombia, Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia-Ejército del Pueblo (FARC-EP). Acuerdo final para la terminación del conflicto y la construcción de una paz estable y duradera (2016). Bogotá November 10, 2021.

² Presidency of the Republic of Colombia, National Planning Department. National Council for Economic and Social Policy. National Policy for the Social and Economic Reincorporation of former FARC-EP members, Pub. L. No. Document CONPES 3931, 1 (2018).

³ In the case of the FARC-EP, since it is collective and does not obey a process of surrender, it has been called Reincorporation, although in international literature still named Reintegration.

⁴ Peace Accords Matrix (PAM), Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies. Five Years of Peace Agreement Implementation in Colombia: Achievements, Challenges and Opportunities to Increase Implementation Levels, December 2016 – October 2021 (2021). https://doi.org/10.7274/0C483J36025.

⁵ ARN – Agencia para la Reincorporación y Normalización. Resolución 4309. Por el cual se establece la Ruta de Reincorporación, Pub. L. No. 4309, 1 (2019). https://www.reincorporacion.gov.co/es/agencia/Documentos Resoluciones/Resolucion_4309.pdf.

⁶ Gobierno de Colombia, Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia-Ejército del Pueblo, Acuerdo final para la terminación del conflicto y la construcción de una paz estable y duradera (2016).

⁷ ECOMUN, ‘Economías Sociales Del Común’ Website’, https://ecomun.com.co/ (accessed July 28, 2022).

⁸ Luis Peña, ‘Territorializing Peace: How Do We Make Peacebuilding Territorial?’ Policy Brief, 2022. https://doi.org/10.7274/CR56N01348K.

⁹ PRIO and PNUD, Lights and Shadows of the Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Colombia: Attitudes and Perceptions in the PDET Territories (Bogotá, December 9, 2020) https://www.prio.org/publications/12731.

¹⁰ John Paul Lederach, The Little Book of Conflict Transformation (The Little Books of Justice & Peacebuilding. Good Books, 2014); John Paul Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997); and John Paul Lederach, The Moral Imagination: The Art and Soul of Building Peace (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

¹¹ Oliver Ramsbotham, ‘Tom Wooodhouse, and Hugh Miall’, in Contemporary Conflict Resolution: The Prevention, Management and Transformation of Deadly Conflicts. 4th ed. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2016), 274.

¹² Ramsbotham, ‘Tom Wooodhouse, and Hugh Miall’, 276.

¹³ German Dario Valencia, Fredy Alexánder Chaverra, German Dario Valencia Agudelo and Fredy Alexánder Chaverra Colorado, ‘Cooperativismo y Reincorporación Socioeconómica de Exintegrantes de Las Farc-EP En Colombia’, Revista de Paz y Conflictos 12, no. 2 (February 26, 2020): 227–48. https://doi.org/10.30827/revpaz.v12i2.10236.

¹⁴ Ernesto Cardenas, Kristian Skrede Gleditsch and Luis Carlos Guevara. ‘Network Structure of Insurgent Groups and the Success of DDR Processes in Colombia’, Small Wars and Insurgencies 29, no. 4 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2018.1488416; and McEvoy Kieran and Peter Shirlow, ‘Re-Imagining DDR: Ex-Combatants, Leadership and Moral Agency in Conflict Transformation’, Theoretical Criminology 13, no. 1 (January 14, 2009): 31–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480608100172.

¹⁵ Andrés Escobar-Espinoza, Jorge Armando Luna-Amador and Nicolas López-Verhelst, ‘Reintegración Económica: Conceptualización y Estrategias Implementadas En Colombia y Otros Países’, Saber, Ciencia y Libertad 14, no. 1 (2019): 118–39. https://doi.org/10.18041/2382–3240/saber.2019v14n1.5211.

¹⁶ UN – United Nations Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Resource Centre, ‘The Integrated DDR Standards’, UN. https://www.unddr.org/the-iddrs/(accessed March 25, 2021); and ‘What Is DDR?’, http://www.unddr.org/what-is-ddr/introduction_1.aspx (accessed January 13, 2019).

¹⁷ Vicenç Fisas, ‘Introducción Al Desarme, Desmovilización y Reintegración (DDR) de Excombatientes’, Quaderns de Construcción de Pau, no. 24 (2011); Guáqueta Alexandra and Gerson Arias, ‘Transitional DDR in Colombia: Useful or Counterproductive?’ (2008); and Theidon Kimberly, ‘Transitional Subjects: The Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia’, The International Journal of Transitional Justice 1, no. 1 (2007): 66–90. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijm011.

¹⁸ Robert Muggah and Chris O’Donnell, ‘Next Generation Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration’, Stability, (2015): 4. https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.fs.

¹⁹ Simon Saldner, ‘Contextualizing Reintegration: Conceptualizing and Measuring Ex-Combatant Reintegration Relative to Civilians’, (2019).

²⁰ Saldner, ‘Contextualizing Reintegration’, 2.

²¹ Alpaslan Özerdem, ‘A Re-Conceptualisation of Ex-Combatant Reintegration: ’Social Reintegration’approach’, Conflict, Security and Development 12, no. 1 (March 2012): 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2012.667661.

²² Regional Development Index, ‘IDERE LATAM’, https://ediciones.uautonoma.cl/index.php/UA/catalog/view/84/173/556–1.

²³ See DANE – Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, ‘Empleo y Desempleo’, Bogotá, https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/mercado-laboral/empleo-y-desempleo (accessed November 30, 2020).

²⁴ See Monetary and Multidimensional Poverty DANE – Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, ‘Pobreza Monetaria y Multidimensional En Colombia 2019’, https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/pobreza-y-condiciones-de-vida/pobreza-y-desigualdad/pobreza-monetaria-y-multidimensional-en-colombia-2019#pobreza-multidimensional-nacional-y-departamentos (accessed December 31, 2019).

²⁵ See Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN), ‘Crisis Group’, https://www.crisisgroup.org/latin-america-caribbean/andes/colombia.

²⁶ See Post-Farc Armed Groups, ‘Fundación PARES’ https://www.pares.com.co/post/grupos-armados-posfarc-gapf-una-nueva-espiral-de-violencia-en-colombia.

²⁷ See INDEPAZ, https://indepaz.org.co/lideres-sociales-defensores-de-dd-hh-y-firmantes-de-acuerdo-asesinados-en-2022/.

²⁸ Since the signing of the Final Agreement, The UN Mission has Recorded the Killing of 342 ex-combatants, United Nations Security Council, ‘Report of the Secretary-General on the UN Verification Mission in Colombia S/2022/513’, (accessed June 27, 2022).

²⁹ In the most vulnerable territories in the country (called PDET) there is a gap of almost 18 percentage points more than subjective poverty perception, while the national average of multidimensional poverty stood at 16% of the population, in the PDET territories this figure rises to 28%. DANE Multidimensional Poverty Index in PDET, 2021; DANE Monetary poverty with a differential approach 2021 https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/pobreza-y-condiciones-de-vida/pobreza-monetaria.

³⁰ See Tobón Santiago, Chirs Blattman, Gustavo Duncan and Ben Lessing, ‘Gangs of Medellín: How organised crime is organised’, (forthcoming).

³¹ Kathleen M. Jennings, ‘The Struggle to Satisfy: DDR Through the Eyes of Ex-Combatants in Liberia’, International Peacekeeping 14, no. 2 (2007): 204–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533310601150800.

³² Thania Paffenholz, ‘Unpacking the Local Turn in Peacebuilding: A Critical Assessment Towards an Agenda for Future Research’, Third World Quarterly 36, no. 5 (May 4, 2015): 857–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1029908; Thania Paffenholz, ‘International Peacebuilding Goes Local: Analysing Lederach’s Conflict Transformation Theory and Its Ambivalent Encounter with 20 Years of Practice’, Peacebuilding 2, no. 1 (January 2, 2014): 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2013.783257; and Mary Kaldor, Marika Theros and Rim Turkmani, ‘Local Agreements -an Introduction to the Special Issue’, Peacebuilding 10, no. 2 (2022): 107–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2022.2042111.

³³ Kristina Daniels and Sabine Kurtenbach, Los Enredos de La Paz. Reflexiones Alrededor Del Largo Camino de La Transformación Del Conflicto Armado En Colombia (Bogotá: FRESCO – Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung en Colombia, 2021).

³⁴ One of the most outstanding collective demobilisations in Colombia occurred during 2003–2006 when more than 50.000 combatants from AUC laid down their arms.

³⁵ Aileen van Leeuwen, ‘Breaking with the Past, How Colombian Ex-Combatants Reintegrated into a City Dominated by Armed Groups’, PAX et BELLUM Journal of Peace and Conflict Studies 5, no. 1 (2018): 37–56.

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³⁷ Escobar-Espinoza, Luna-Amador and López-Verhelst, ‘Reintegración Económica: Conceptualización y Estrategias Implementadas En Colombia y Otros Países’, 118–39; and Larissa Rhyn, ‘Overcoming Stigma and Fostering Participation: Mechanisms for Community Reintegration in Colombia’, Conflict, Security and Development 19, no. 2 (2019): 195–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2019.1586157.

³⁸ Laura Andrea Cristancho and Adriana Otálora Buitrago, ‘Inclusión laboral de los desmovilizados del conflicto armado en Colombia’, Revista de Sociología, no. 1 (May 27, 2018): 169–96. http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/Tendencias/article/view/21366.

³⁹ María Llorente and María Méndez, La Reincorporación de Las FARC Tres Años Después Desafíos y Propuestas Análisis de Coyuntura (Fundación Ideas para la Paz [FIP], 2019), 22; and Harold Martínez and Iona Lefebvre, La Reincorporación Económica de Los Excombatientes de Las FARC. Retos y Riesgos a Futuro, Vol. 9. (Bogotá: Fundación Ideas para la Paz [FIP], 2019).

⁴⁰ Jorge Armando Cañon, La reincorporación económica de las FARC: entre obstáculos estructurales y apuestas transformadoras de ex Insurgentes (Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2021). https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/handle/unal/81374.

⁴¹ Oliver Kaplan and Enzo Nussio, ‘Community Counts: The Social Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in Colombia’, Conflict Management and Peace Science 35, no. 2 (April 25, 2015): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894215614506; Javier Alonso Cárdenas Díaz and Nadia Stefanía Pérez Páez, eds. Reintegración Comunitaria de Excombatientes En Colombia: Una Mirada Desde Lo Territorial (Bogotá: Universidad del Rosario, Agencia para la Reincorporación y la Normalización, Presidencia de la República, 2018). https://doi.org/10.12804/TH9789587841640; and Angela J. Lederach, ‘Youth Provoking Peace: An Intersectional Approach to Territorial Peacebuilding in Colombia’, Peacebuilding 8, no. 2 (April 2, 2019): 198–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2019.1616959.

⁴² Valencia, Alexánder Chaverra, Dario Valencia Agudelo, and Alexánder Chaverra Colorado. ‘Cooperativismo y Reincorporación Socioeconómica de Exintegrantes de Las Farc-EP En Colombia’, 227–48.

⁴³ Andrés Aunta and Víctor Barrera, Conflictividades y Agendas Territoriales (Publicaciones CINEP, 2016), 11.

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⁴⁵ Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development. The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995).

⁴⁶ Mesa de Género del Consejo Nacional de Reincorporación, Entidad de las Naciones Unidas para la, Igualdad de Género y el Empoderamiento de las Mujeres (ONU Mujeres), Misión de Verificación de las Naciones Unidas en, Colombia, Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo, and (PNUD), Herramientas Para La Inclusión Del Enfoque de Género En Procesos de Reincorporación Económica (Bogotá, 2019).

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⁵⁴ See Susanna P. Campbell, ‘Ethics of Research in Conflict Environments’, Journal of Global Security Studies 2, no. 1 (January 2017): 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1093/JOGSS/OGW024.

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⁵⁸ A detailed description of the five phases of fieldwork, data analysis and ‘situated knowledge’ (Donna Haraway) will be included in a forthcoming publication. Findings on gender/sex analysis were also included in a separate article.

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⁶³ According to the initial census, the origin of the FARC population is predominantly rural (72%), rural-urban in municipal capitals (17%), and urban in the country’s large capital cities (11%), Universidad Nacional de Colombia. ‘Caracterización Comunidad FARC-EP: Resultados Generales’. Informe de Rendición de Cuentas de La Implementación Del Acuerdo de Paz, 2017.

⁶⁴ Francy Carranza-Franco, Demobilisation and Reintegration in Colombia: Building State and Citizenship (Routledge, 2020).

⁶⁵ María and Méndez, La Reincorporación de Las FARC Tres Años Después Desafíos y Propuestas Análisis de Coyuntura, 22.

⁶⁶ Only 2310 out of 14.000 accredited ex-combatants live in ETCR, United Nations Security Council, ‘Report of the Secretary-General on the UN Verification Mission in Colombia S/2022/513’, https://colombia.unmissions.org/en (accessed June 27, 2022).

⁶⁷ The UN Verification Mission in Colombia estimates the number at 65, but in interviews, the ex-combatants spoke of 90 NAR.

⁶⁸ The Autodefensas Gaitanistas de Colombia (AGC) is a paramilitary group operating in Colombia. They are known for their involvement in various illegal activities and have been associated with violence and threats against communities and individuals, including ex-combatants of the FARC-EP.

⁶⁹ See Tobón et al., (forthcoming). The authors describe how criminal gangs have territorial control over legal economies, shops, removals, housing construction, must pay ‘vacunas’ to operate (i.e. extortion). They impose restrictions on mobility, producing forced confinement or forced displacement.

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⁷² J. Abbott, ‘Community Participation and Its Relationship to Community Development’, Community Development Journal 30, no. 2 (April 1, 1995): 158–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/CDJ/30.2.158.

⁷³ Rhyn, Larissa, 2019. Jaremey R. McMullin, ‘Integration or Separation? The Stigmatisation of Ex-Combatants after War’, Review of International Studies 39, no. 2 (2013): 385–414. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210512000228.

⁷⁴ James A. Christenson, ‘Community Development’, Rural Society in the U.S.: Issues for the 1980s, (January 1, 2019): 264–72. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429305153–30/COMMUNITY-DEVELOPMENT-JAMES-CHRISTENSON.

⁷⁵ Kaplan and Nussio, ‘Community Counts: The Social Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in Colombia’, 1–22.

⁷⁶ ECOMÚN, ‘Economías Sociales Del Común – ECOMUN’, https://ecomun.com.co/. (accessed October 21, 2020).

⁷⁷ ILO – International Labour Organization, Decent Work and the Social and Solidarity Economy (Geneva, 2022),14.

⁷⁸ Depending on the type of participation intra o inter-grupal, they could also be clustered and entrenched social orders, according to Solveig Richter and Laura Camila Barrios Sabogal, ‘Dynamics of Peace or Legacy of Rebel Governance? Patterns of Cooperation between FARC-Ex-Combatants and Conflict-Affected Communities in Colombia’, Small Wars & Insurgencies, (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2022.2117824.

⁷⁹ CNR-COMUNES, ‘Equipo Comunitario – CNR Componente COMUNES’, https://www.cnrfarc.co/?page_id=16008 (accessed July 27, 2022).

⁸⁰ See Olga Criollo, ‘Así viven los excombatientes de las Farc en el Valle del Cauca’, El País, https://www.elpais.com.co/proceso-de-paz/asi-viven-los-excombatientes-de-las-farc-en-el-valle-del-cauca.html (accessed 8 September 2019).

⁸¹ Özerdem. ‘A Re-Conceptualisation of Ex-Combatant Reintegration’, 51–73.

⁸² Aunta and Víctor, Conflictividades y Agendas Territoriales.

⁸³ Eduardo Álvares Vanegas, Daniel Pardo Calderon and Andres Cajiao Vélez. Trayectorias y Dinámicas Territoriales de Las FARC (2018).

⁸⁴ María and Méndez, La Reincorporación de Las FARC Tres Años Después. Desafíos y Propuestas, 22.

⁸⁵ “Social Impact Measurement for the Social and Solidarity Economy: OECD Global Action Promoting Social & Solidarity Economy Ecosystems | OECD Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) Papers.

⁸⁶ OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ‘Social Economy and the COVID-19 Crisis: Current and Future Roles. OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19)’, July 30, 2020. https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/social-economy-and-the-covid-19-crisis-current-and-future-roles-f904b89f/.

⁸⁷ ‘Tackling Informality in Colombia with the Social and Solidarity Economy – OECD’, https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/social-economy/tackling-informality-in-colombia-with-the-social-and-solidarity-economy.htm (accessed November 16, 2022); ‘OECD Social Economy and Innovation Unit Centre for Centre for Entrepreneurship, SMEs, Regions and Cities Social Protection and Tackling Informality: Building on the Social and Solidarity Economy in Colombia’. OECD Social Economy and Innovation Unit Centre for Centre for Entrepreneurship, SMEs, Regions, and Cities, 2021.

⁸⁸ For Scott, people are not passive recipients of oppression and abuse of power. James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).

⁸⁹ Lederach. The Moral Imagination.

⁹⁰ Erin McFee and Angelika Rettberg, ‘Contexto de Los Desafíos de La Implementación Temprana En Colombia’, in Excombatientes y Acuerdo de Paz Con Las FARC En Colombia: Balance de La Etapa Temprana, eds. Erin McFee and Angelika Rettberg. (Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes, 2019). https://doi.org/10.30778/2019.39.

⁹¹ Alonso Cárdenas and Stefanía Pérez Páez, eds. Reintegración Comunitaria de Excombatientes En Colombia.

⁹² See note 89 above.

⁹³ Lederach, The Little Book of Conflict Transformation.

⁹⁴ Lederach. The Moral Imagination, 25.

⁹⁵ Saskia Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages. Territory, Authority, Rights (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400828593.

⁹⁶ See note 89 above.

⁹⁷ Robin Luckham, ‘Whose Violence, Whose Security? Can Violence Reduction and Security Work for Poor, Excluded and Vulnerable People?’ Peacebuilding 5, no. 2 (May 4, 2017): 99–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2016.1277009.

⁹⁸ Ingrid Robeyns, Wellbeing, Freedom, and Social Justice: The Capability Approach Re-Examined (Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2017). https://doi.org/10.11647/obp.0130.

⁹⁹ During the 1990s, with the changing role of the State in socio-economic development in favour of for-profit private enterprises, resources allocated to cooperative development declined sharply, ILO 2022, p. 55.

¹⁰⁰ Dámari Expósito and Jesús Alberto González, ‘Sistematización de Experiencias Como Método de Investigación’, Gaceta Médica Espirituana 19, no. 2 (2017). http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1608–89212017000200003; and O. Jara Holliday, ‘Systematization of experiences, research, and evaluation: three different approaches’, International Journal for Global and Development Education Research 1, (2012): 71–84.

Additional information

Funding

The work was supported by the Santander Bank Scholarship, bero-Amerikanisches Institut Preußischer Kulturbesitz (IAI) Grant.

Notes on contributors

Isabel Lopera-Arbeláez

Isabel Lopera-Arbeláez, PhD Candidate in Social Sciences. Magister in Human Development, Universidad EAFIT, Psychologist, University of San Buenaventura. Social researcher focused on peacebuilding and conflict studies. Feminist. The human development paradigm and architecture to social inclusion are themes of her academic work.

Francisco López Gallego

Francisco López Gallego, PhD in Management Sciences, Ramón Llull University, Barcelona. Research Sufficiency (DEA), School of Management - ESADE, Barcelona, Spain. Psychologist, University of Antioquia, Colombia. Director of the Doctoral Programme in Administration and of the Ad-Minister Journal, as well as Professor of Organisation and Management, Universidad EAFIT, Colombia, currently full Professor of Senior Management.

Solveig Richter

Solveig Richter, Heisenberg Professor for International Relations and Transnational Politics at Leipzig University. She worked as a Junior Professor for International Conflict Management at the Willy Brandt School of Public Policy in Erfurt and Senior Researcher at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs, Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, Berlin. Her research interests cover post- conflict dynamics, non-state actors, external democratisation, civilian peace missions and perspectives from the Global South. She has gained a regional expertise on Eastern Europe, notably the Western Balkans, as well as on Colombia.

Ángel Espina Barrio

Ángel Espina Barrio, PhD in Philosophy and Educational Sciences, degree in Philosophy, and degree in Psychology from the University of Salamanca, Spain. Since 1984 professor in the area of Social Anthropology at the same university. Director of the Anthropology line of the PhD in Social Sciences. Member of the Royal European Academy of Doctors (RAED).