ABSTRACT
In this paper, I argue that the World Bank’s development strategy in Rwanda is unsuitable for long-term sustainability. By applying content analysis I consider the strategic goals as outlined in the World Bank’s Rwanda – Country partnership strategy for the period 2014–2018, and Learning for All: investing in people’s knowledge and skills to promote development, 2011; and Rwanda’s Vision 2020; to show how the Bank’s pursuit of narrow economic parameters is to the detriment of issues such as social inequality and the suppression of dissent. Given Rwanda’s traumatic recent history, I argue that the contours of Bank policy, which evolved from ‘rolling back the state’ to ‘good governance’ in recent years – understood as selective collaboration with bureaucratic elites in stable, but often authoritarian regimes must incorporate credible plans that address the current human rights abuses, shortcomings in the rule of law and democratic deficit in the country. Furthermore, I argue that Rwanda and the Bank's recent focus on ‘knowledge’ is in essence an educational discourse that is skewed in favor of neoliberal, economic activity – what has been called ‘knowledge capitalism’ (Wanner 2009).
Introduction
The genocide of the mainly Tutsi ethnic group in Rwanda in 1994 became a blight on the world's conscience. The French were accused of complicity with the Hutu-led government of Juvenal Habyarimana and the Belgians considered beyond the pale for sending in their troops to evacuate Belgian citizens leaving the grief-stricken Tutsis behind to face extermination at the hands of the machete-wielding executioners (Meredith Citation2011). The USA, traumatized by its failure in Somalia in 1992, was reticent to intervene in another African country two years later. The genocide in Rwanda was one where the world could not be stirred sufficiently to intervene and stop a preventableFootnote1 genocide (Guest Citation2013).
This paper considers the World Bank's interaction with the government of Rwanda in the post-conflict era and the last decade in particular. The study is based on a content analysis of documents in the public domain, among which are: The World Bank's (1) Country partnership strategy, Rwanda, for the period 2014–2018 (2) Learning for All: investing in people's knowledge and skills to promote development, 2011 and (3) Rwanda's Vision 2020. Vision 2020 has been redrafted into Vision 2050, but this paper will concern itself with the undrafted version. The World Bank has supported Rwanda in its ambitions to become an attractive destination for private investment. According to the Bank,
Two World Bank projects supported the government in its effort to improve the investment climate: (i) the Competitiveness and Enterprise Development Project, started by the International Development Association (IDA) in 2001, and, (ii) the Rwanda Investment Climate Reform Program, initiated through the World Bank Group's Investment Climate Advisory Services in 2007. (The World Bank Group Citation2013)
I am here to say to President Paul Kagame and the Rwandan people that the World Bank Group is ready to help in any way that they can and that we believe in the future of Rwanda and we believe that it will continue to be a model for the entire world. (New China Citation2017)
It has been argued that prior to the genocide, the World Bank, which Uvin (Citation1997, 46) has dubbed the multilateral donor ‘with the strongest love affair with Rwanda’, was narrowly preoccupied with economic growth in Rwanda to the detriment of increasing social divisions and inequalities. As such, tributes emanating from the Bank need to be carefully evaluated. Some, such as Storey (Citation2001, 371) have implicated the Bank and the IMF in exacerbating the divisions through structural adjustment policies in 1991, among which the following conditions were outlined: devaluation of the Rwandan franc by 40%; constraints on wages; increase in fees for health and education; reduction of coffee subsidies; phased removal of trade restrictions and the privatization of some state enterprises.Footnote2
The discourse, therefore, did not flow from any detailed analysis of the specificity of Rwanda – indeed a central plank of Bank discourse is that it offers universal, technical solutions that do not need to be tailored to local circumstances … the Bank's discursive construction missed (deliberately or otherwise) a critical element of what was actually happening – sharply rising inequality, accelerating elite enrichment and corruption (mainly organized through the state). (Storey Citation2001, 380)
The critique of the regime in this paper must obviously be considered in the interstices of the country's violent past, which would make transition a herculean task for any leader. Freedman et al. (Citation2008), who worked on a project to restart the teaching of History as a school subject in Rwanda, touch on some of these dynamics at work within Rwandan society. The research participants found it hard to discuss issues of ethnicity because of the government's fear that this may reignite ethnic tensions. They caution, ‘The ultimate lesson for educators may be that, while the debate on best practices focuses on content of material or the process of creating materials, the real concern has to do with timing and context’ (Freedman et al. Citation2008, 686). Similarly, other studies conducted in Rwanda (Pham, Weinstein, and Longman Citation2004) assessing symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) have found that about one quarter of respondents were impacted. They conclude:
Those who met the PTSD symptom criteria were less likely to support the Rwandan national trials, to believe in community, and to demonstrate interdependence with other ethnic groups. These findings suggest that the relationship of judicial trials to reconciliation cannot be assumed, nor can we assume that all trauma survivors necessarily see justice in the same way. (Pham, Weinstein, and Longman Citation2004, 611)
Neo-statism at the service of World Bank ideology
Rwanda has made extraordinary progress in recent years. It is one of the few countries anywhere in the world that has managed a ‘triple crown’ of fast economic growth, robust reductions in poverty, and a narrowing of inequality. This progress, so notable in this year marking the twentieth anniversary of the Genocide against Tutsi, has helped illustrate the possibilities and opportunities for any country seeking a new path of peace and prosperity. The fact that the poverty rate fell from 59 percent to 45 percent in the last decade and that Rwanda is now ranked as the second easiest place to do business in all of Africa, speaks volumes. (World Bank Citation2014a, i)
Rwanda will continue on its path to put in place macroeconomic stabilization policies that are conducive for private sector development. This, together with a fiscal consolidation strategy aiming at expanding the domestic resource base while rationalizing spending, and increasing exports, is the only way to lessen aid dependence … Government will focus on private sector development, desisting from providing services that the private sector can deliver more efficiently and competitively. With the policies in place, the economy will be able to take up the challenge of transforming into a knowledge-based society. (Vision 2020 ‘Progress and Way Forward’, Citation2011)
According to Harrison (Citation2004), the Bank has transitioned from pure economic liberalism to institutionalism (conditionality to post-conditionality). The earlier policy of ‘rolling back the state’ during the heyday of the ill-fated structural adjustment policies (SAPs) has come to be substituted by the mantra of ‘good governance’. Harrison highlights the following four features that characterize governance states: order, the social formation of stable ruling elites, bureaucratic structures insulated from political interference and embedding a neoliberal program. Put differently, ‘conditionality’ has given way to ‘selectivity’. In this new modus operandi, countries which have emerged from protracted conflicts and go on to establish order, bureaucratic stability and spawn elites who kowtow to neoliberal policies, are touted as ‘success stories’.
Rwanda has been co-opted into the role of an African paragon showcasing the Bank's rhetoric of ‘selectivity’ and ‘good governance’. Scholars have cautioned about Rwanda's statistics purporting to show high levels of growth. They argue that research appears to contradict government interpretations of the dataset. Some conclusions challenged are:
Yields probably increased over the period of the implementation of the agricultural reforms, but less than what the most optimistic but least reliable data source suggests (FAO statistics). Poverty decreased significantly over the 2005/6–2010/11 period but with seasonal effects playing a partial role. Inflation over the 2010/11–2013/14 period was probably much higher (around 30%) than the assumed 16.7%. (Ansoms et al. Citation2017)
But the (Tutsi-dominated) government cannot recognize that it is setting up the same problems that created Hutu distrust under the Belgian regime. It insists that any Hutus who object or criticize are engaging in ‘divisionism’ and must be jailed or otherwise punished. The Hutu remain the underclass; yet again they are uneducated and discriminated against. (Marchak Citation2008, 74)
The Bank persists in the chimera that through a narrow set of parameters, among others what Moore (Citation1999) referred to as ‘lean neoliberalism’ and ‘Hayekian neo-statism’, utopia is within reach for poor countries. The political philosopher and economist, F.A. Hayek, tried unsuccessfully to make a distinction between authoritarianism and totalitarianism in defending what he termed ‘transitional dictatorships’ in Latin America, such as Pinochet in Chile. Hayek's vision of statecraft was one where the chief role of the state was to promote and safeguard the interests of the market, competition and prices through the legal order (Moore Citation1999). The current ‘partnership’ and accolades bestowed upon Rwanda must be seen in light of the Bank's evolution in recent decades. From seeking to ‘roll back the state’ in the post McNamara era, it was forced to make a concession to the East Asian Miracle model, especially as crystallized in the Japanese strategy of the state-sponsored allocation of ‘directed credit’ (Berger and Beeson Citation1998) and subsequent report in 1993. The current ‘good governance’ model aligns with F.A. Hayek's vision where ‘strongmen’ are seen as ‘partners’ as long as they internalize and embed the Bank's neoliberal values. However, this ‘partnership’ has been an exploitative one:
Liberalization opened up African markets to goods from foreign countries, but the African countries had little to sell abroad. Opening up capital markets did not bring an inrush of capital; investors were interested in taking out Africa's bountiful natural resources. (Stiglitz Citation2012, 41)
Rwanda will continue on its path to put in place macroeconomic stabilization policies that are conducive for private sector development … Government will focus on private sector development, desisting from providing services that the private sector can deliver more efficiently and competitively. (Rwanda Vision 2020, 6)
Booth and Golooba-Mutebi (Citation2012) employ the term ‘developmental patrimonialism’ to Rwanda and believe that this is the case
… when the ruling elite acquires an interest in, and a capability for, managing economic rents in a centralized way with a view to enhancing their own and others’ incomes in the long run rather than maximizing them in the short run.
To date, however, no one has apparently demanded transparency and accountability. Nevertheless, Rwanda's technocratic elite, along with its business community, development partners and researchers, are seriously and increasingly concerned about the high concentration of party statals in the economy. Even without proper analysis, they are suggesting elite capture and alleging favouritism, with the liberal mixing of government and private funds. (Gökgür Citation2012, 22)
The role of ‘unnamed chaperone’ serves the purposes of the Bank in a plethora of ways. The events of the global financial paroxysm of 2008/9 is one such ‘useful purpose’. The turbo-charged global markets were on the brink of collapse when the excesses piggybacking on Wall Street and London City's insatiable appetite for low taxes and light regulation, among others, caught up with them. Speaking of the collapse of the Lehman Brothers, the sub-prime mortgage losses incurred by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac (collateralized debt obligations dubbed ‘toxic waste’) the Conservative British government's decision to ignore competition laws and induce Lloyds TSB to pay £12 billion to stabilize the vulnerable HBOS group (Halifax and Bank of Scotland), the collapse of Iceland and the ensuing Keynesian-style bail out of global financial institutions totaling trillions of dollars, Elliott and Atkinson (Citation2008) wrote:
The world has changed utterly during the past 15 month. For the disciples of anything-goes finance, the events of 2007 and 2008 have been as traumatic as was the demolition of the Berlin Wall in 1989 to communist apparatchiks and their western apologists. The collapse of communism marked the dawn of market fundamentalism; the necessity for the US government to take a stake in Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley saw the sun going down on that era. (Elliott and Atkinson Citation2008, 335)
These groups not only spearhead the much-needed economic development in a country with a weak private sector, but also contribute to a rapid accumulation of wealth among a politically connected elite. For instance, a group of Kagame's closest confidants were majority shareholders in Tri-Star Company (the predecessor to Crystal Ventures), which was awarded all road building contracts financed by UNDP and the European Union after the genocide. (Mann and Berry Citation2016, 131)
Recent years have seen some equivocation on the part of some aid donors to Rwanda. The second largest donor, the UK's Department for International Development (DFID) suspended, reinstated, and then suspended again budgetary support for Rwanda (McDoom Citation2013). According to the Economist (Citation2013), ‘Other European governments have stopped or reduced their contributions. The Americans have suspended military aid, albeit worth a mere $200,000, and may cut development projects’. The reticence in propping up Rwanda's aid budget, which comprises about 40% of the country's budget, has been, among others, blamed on Kagame's authoritarian style and interference in the Congo. The severe cutbacks may potentially have implications for Rwanda's economic and political stability. According to the World Bank Group (2014), aid accounted for between 40% and 50% of Rwanda's total revenues between 2002 and 2012.
The volume of Official Development Assistance (ODA) increased from US$360 million in 2002 to US$0.9 billion in 2012 (13 percent of GNI) and these substantial inflows of foreign aid have stimulated the services sector through Government expenditures.
Holtom (Citation2005), in his essay on why Tanzania's Nyerere capitulated to the World Bank in the mid-80s, highlights the role of the ‘epistemic community’. Haas (Citation1992, 18) describes it as ‘a shared set of causal principles (analytical and normative) and beliefs, a consensual knowledge base, and a common policy enterprise (common interests) that distinguishes epistemic communities from other groups’ (Haas Citation1992, 18). These pro-reformers were opposed to Nyerere's handling of the economy and worked on Bank-sponsored projects such as the Tanzania Advisory Group (TAG). Holtom (Citation2005) argues that Tanzania's policies, although centralized and bureaucratic, were ‘rational’ in the sense that policies that genuinely led to development were valorized. This ‘rational’ outlook, and not any coercion on the part of the Bank, relinquished power to the emergent alliance between the Bank and this endogenous, neo-liberal, ‘epistemic community’ that ‘brought together economists from the University's economics department and Economics Research Bureau (ERB) together with private consultants and staff from key ministries such as agriculture, transport, industry and trade’ (Holtom Citation2005, 560).
In a similar vein, Goldman (Citation2004) considers the machinations of the World Bank's involvement in Laos in the 1990s with a focus on the way it positioned itself as a champion of ecological sustainability. Commensurate with Holtom’s (Citation2005) analysis in Tanzania (i.e. epistemic community), Goldman (2001) highlights the role of what he calls the ‘hybrid actors’. Local civil servants, Northern (semi-nomadic) consultants and Northern professionals who run shadow governments each work under the auspices of the Bank to territorialize epistemological space and run Laos in effect. Laos has been carved up by Bank officials into ‘eco-zones’ assigned to various Bank-designated purposes to the detriment of local populations who have been relocated and indigenous species that are threatened. Locals are trained abroad in Bank institutions and imbibe neoliberal ideology. Employing Foucault, Goldman (2001) draws attention to the manner in which the above modus operandi produces a knowledge/power nexus which allows the Bank in concert with other transnational agents to use the environment as a pretext for producing new regimes of truth. The Bank cannot accomplish this alone but in collaboration with ‘a growing network of translocal scientists, technocrats, NGOs, and empowered (or “responsibilized”) citizens to help generate the data and construct the discursive strategies of sustainability’ (Goldman Citation2005, 156). The magnitude of the intervention is captured in the citation below.
It has also begun the process of converting the previously inconsequential forest, hill, and river communities into visible, communicative, and accountable populations. In short, the Bank has instigated a proliferating domain of human activity - the activity of government and subject creation - that works to make sites and populations more compatible for these large capital investments, even as these investments evolve to include new ways to improve biodiversity, mountain populations, and the professional class. (Goldman 2001, 506)
The ‘knowledge society’ and the ‘knowledge bank’
With the policies in place, the economy will be able to take up the challenge of transforming into a knowledge-based society. (Rwanda Vision 2020, 6)
What has been achieved as a result of the 1,000 Bank publications on education? One way of answering this question is to ask how far these publications have influenced thinking in the development field. This is a reasonable question, since the Bank thinks of itself as a ‘knowledge bank’ and aspires to be both a generator of new knowledge and a synthesizer of existing knowledge. An obvious measure of the Bank's success as a generator of knowledge is citations. The broadest citation data available today come from Google Scholar, which covers not just journal articles, but also books, book chapters, working papers, dissertations, and technical reports … The median citation count for Bank education articles is 13, while that of Bank books is 10. (World Bank Group Education Strategy 2020)
Individuals do not even compose a social group because they all work for a common end. The parts of a machine work with a maximum of cooperativeness for a common result, but they do not form a community. If, however, they were all cognizant of the common end and all interested in it so that they regulated their specific activity in view of it, then they would form a community. But this would involve communication … Consensus demands communication. (Dewey Citation2011, 11)
The Bank makes explicit its ambition to become a ‘knowledge bank’. Klees (Citation2012, 56) has calculated that the Bank spent about $ 175, 000 per piece of research between 2001 and 2010. To his mind, the Bank's aspiration to become a clearing house for all knowledge and best practice is ‘frightening’ as there can only be an ‘Opinion Bank’ competing with other opinions in the market of ideas. Despite the fact that the Bank claims to incorporate the views of civil society, indigenous people and other marginalized voices, Klees observes that ‘The theories, practices, and even names of noted educators like Dewey, Freire, Montessori, and Vygotsky are curiously absent from decades of World Bank documents about education’ (Klees Citation2012, 56). A case in point is the Bank's so-called ‘evidence’ of its impact in education: ‘An obvious measure of the Bank's success as a generator of knowledge is citations’. One wonders whether the Bank has considered the nature of these ‘citations’ culled from Google Scholar, and, more crucially, as Dewey eloquently writes, whether the one who seeks to communicate is transformed in the process.
Nor is the one who communicates left unaffected. Try the experiment of communicating with fullness and accuracy, some experience to another, especially if it be somewhat complicated, and you will find your own attitude toward your experience changing; otherwise you resort to expletives and ejaculations … To formulate requires getting outside of it, seeing it as another would see … . (Dewey Citation2011, 7)
Conclusion
The World Bank is committed to the task of making Rwanda an attractive destination for private investment, and considers the country ‘a model for the entire world’ (New China Citation2017). I have critiqued this narrow preoccupation with economic growth to the detriment of social divisions, inequalities and human rights violations. The Bank's neoliberal policies in Rwanda in the past have been implicated in exacerbating social divisions and, as such, underscores the need for the Bank to tread carefully in its current dealings with Rwanda. Furthermore, scholars have challenged reports published by the government of Rwanda that purport to show a reduction in poverty in the 2010/11–2013/14 period and argue that the changes are constant. Clearly, the above would suggest a more critical engagement with the often optimistic government-generated statistics in Rwanda.
In particular, I have argued that the Bank's portrayal of Rwanda as ‘a role model for the entire world’ is reckless given what is known about the human rights situation in the country. In addition, the paper argues that any comparisons with East Asian economies is flawed given the domination of just one ethnic group in Rwanda, growing discontent among the population and exclusion of any competing forces in the private sector (Gökgür Citation2012). I have also drawn attention to the contradiction inherent in Rwanda's Vision 2020 which seeks to promote entrepreneurship and the current reality where 80% of the output of the largest 47 manufacturing and agribusiness groups are controlled by foreign and a few, large local firms which are faithful to Kagame's RPF party.
An analysis of Vision 2020 and the World Bank's Rwanda country partnership strategy for the period FY2014–2018 (World Bank Citation2014b) raises concerns about the internalization of Bank discourse, what has been called the ‘epistemic community’ (Holtom Citation2005). Individuals often trained and loyal to the Bank collaborate with ‘hybrid actors’ – a growing network of translocal scientists, technocrats and NGOs, to name a few – territorialize epistemological space and run shadow governments. It is in the interstices of such a Foucauldian knowledge/power nexus that the Bank's claim to be a ‘knowledge bank’ must be understood.
As an educator, the Bank's preoccupation with Google citations as a measure of its impact in the field of development is disconcerting. Klees (Citation2012) regrets the absence of the philosophy of educators such as Dewey, Freire, Montessori and Vygotsky in the Bank's Education Strategy 2020. Significantly, it was Paolo Freire who coined the term ‘banking education’ to critique the traditional model of education in which the student is perceived in terms of a blank Lockean state in which the teacher ‘deposits’ knowledge. For Freire (Citation1996), the task of education, among others, is to induce critical consciousness – a state in which the oppressed learn to read not just the ‘word’, but the ‘world’ and the circumstances responsible for their oppression. I have argued that vulnerable countries like Rwanda, that are heavily dependent on aid, succumb to pressure and adopt policies recommended by the Bank. Regrettably, this becomes a case of ‘banking education’ given that social divisions, human rights abuses and other injustices are ignored – what Simms (Citation2017) calls a ‘human-rights free zone’.
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Paul Thomas http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1366-3781
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Notes
1 According to Barnett (Citation2002), ‘What sets the Rwandan genocide apart from all other genocides is that the international community could have intervened at relatively low cost before the effects were fully realized.’ He calls the international community's complacency in intervening in Rwanda ‘wilful indifference’. Among others, he mentions the UN's Canadian General Romeo Dallaire's pleas for reinforcements and equipment to stop the massacre and the UN's decision to pull out all but 270 troops.
2 Obviously, as a development bank, the World Bank pursues a standard approach to lending and program reform and cannot be faulted for some of the short-term issues – crop failure, war in the north of the country, conflict in Burundi etc. However, and as the evidence in this study suggests, at issue is the Bank's resumption of a development policy vis-a-vis Rwanda that does little or nothing in regard to the country's democratic and human rights deficit.
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