Cultural and Gender Differences in Experiences and Expression of Test Anxiety Among Chinese, Finnish, and Swedish Grade 3 Pupils

Abstract

While test anxiety has been studied extensively, little consideration has been given to the cultural impacts of children's experiences and expressions of test anxiety. The aim of this work was to examine whether variance in test anxiety scores can be predicted based on gender and cultural setting. Three hundred and ninety-eight pupils in Grade 3 in China, Finland, and Sweden, each of which has different testing realities, completed the Children's Test Anxiety Scale (CTAS). Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) results indicated that the Chinese sample scored more highly on the autonomic reactions component, whereas the Nordic sample scored higher on the off-task behaviors component. Significant interaction effects between gender and culture were also observed: The Nordic girls exhibited higher levels of autonomic reactions, but the opposite was seen in the Chinese sample, with boys reporting higher levels of the cognitive component. The conceptualization of test anxiety encompassing the off-task behaviors component does not appear to be universal for children. It is also suggested that gender differences vary as a function of culture.

Keywords::

• Children
• Confucianism
• cross-cultural
• exploratory structural equation modeling
• gender
• high-stakes testing
• test anxiety

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Professor Douglas G. Wren at the Department of Research, Evaluation, and Assessment, Virginia, for kindly providing access to the Children's Text Anxiety Scale. The authors also express their gratitude toward the journal editor and four anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by three projects: National Examination and Young Pupils: Cognitive Implications for Learning (Mikaela Nyroos, grant number 312-1476-07), financed by the School of Education, Umeå University, and the Åbo Akademi University Tercentenary Foundation 1968; and two projects financed by the Swedish Research Council: Comparative Study on Teachers Analyzing Students' Mathematical Errors Between China and Sweden: Impact of Mathematics Teachers' Knowledge and Cultural Values (Aihui Peng, grant number 384-2011-7349)l; and National Mathematics Test: What Does Testing Do for the Pupils? (Gunnar Sjöberg, grant number 2008-4646).

Notes

Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/usep.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Mikaela Nyroos

Mikaela Nyroos, PhD, is Associate Professor in Education at Umeå University, Sweden, with interest in educational psychology.

Johan Korhonen

Johan Korhonen, MEd, is a Junior Lecturer in Special Education and Statistics at Åbo Akademi University, Finland, with interest in educational psychology.

Aihui Peng

Aihui Peng, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in Mathematics Education at Linnéuniversitetet, Sweden/Southwest University, Kina, with interest in mathematics education.

Karin Linnanmäki

Karin Linnanmäki, PhD, is Associate Professor in Special Education at Åbo Akademi University, with interest in educational psychology and sociology.

Camilla Svens-Liavåg

Camilla Svens-Liavåg, MEd, is a Junior Lecturer in Special Education at Åbo Akademi University, Finland, with interest in educational psychology and sociology.

Anette Bagger

Anette Bagger, MEd, is a Junior Lecturer in Special Education at Umeå University, Sweden, with interest in special needs.

Gunnar Sjöberg

Gunnar Sjöberg, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in Special Education at Umeå University, Sweden, with interest in special needs.