Old logics for new games: the appointment of the EU’s High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy

Abstract

This article seeks to identify the main dimensions of the conflicts that arose around the choice of the European Union’s first High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR). The article aims at developing a series of frames to describe systematically the nested games that surrounded the appointment and emphasise the interactions between party politics, institutional dynamics and intergovernmental bargaining. In the absence of an extensive literature, we have resolved to engage in a preliminary empirical exploration of the processes that led to the appointment of Catherine Ashton through an analysis of the Italian and British press on the different perceptions that prevailed in the two countries whose candidates were the main competitors in this highly controversial process. Our hypothesis is that, due to the relative lack of institutionalisation of the procedures and routines that characterised the HR’s appointment, member states would behave by following their institutionalised logics, based on intergovernmental bargaining.

Keywords:

• common foreign and security policy
• institutionalisation
• frames
• intergovernmental dynamics

Notes

1. The responsibilities of the High Representative encompass those previously attributed to two different positions: the High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and the Commissioner for External Relations.

2. See the Lisbon Treaty, art. 13a, par. 2.

3. See the Lisbon Treaty, art. 13a, par. 3.

4. In addition, the Council has specific prerogatives in defining the functioning and the organisation of the European External Action Service, the bureaucratic apparatus assisting the HR.

5. This study is meant only as a preliminary exploration of the validity of our research hypothesis: in scarcely institutionalised political and institutional settings, actors will behave by following their consolidated procedural logics. For this purpose, we feel that a single source of data – press reports – is sufficient. Should this lead to further analysis, additional data and information sources will be necessary.

6. The actual appointment by the European Council took place on 19 November.

7. As article 36 of the Lisbon Treaty states: ‘The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy shall regularly consult the European Parliament on the main aspects and the basic choices of the common foreign and security policy and inform it of how those policies evolve. He shall ensure that the views of the European Parliament are duly taken into consideration. […] The European Parliament may ask questions of the Council or make recommendations to it and to the High Representative. Twice a year it shall hold a debate on progress in implementing the common foreign and security policy, including the common security and defence policy’.

8. The Treaty on European Union provides that, in the event of a censure motion passed by the Parliament against the Commission, the High Representative must resign from his functions within the Commission, but s/he retains her/his responsibilities within the Council until the new Commission is appointed.

9. Of a total of approximately 400 articles published between 1 September and 31 December 2009 identified by a keyword search with the electronic browser Factiva, 93 were found relevant for this study. These were analysed with a specific content analysis coding scheme (Chelotti 2010; Pizzimenti 2010), to identify the main lines of conflict that emerged in the HR appointment process.

10. This position was predominant after the defeat of an Italian candidate (Mario Mauro) in the contest for the Presidency of the European Parliament; see ‘Il peso leggero dell’Italia all’estero’, Corriere della Sera, 5 October 2009.

11. As the HR is also Vice President of the Commision, D’Alema’s appointment would make him the only Italian member of the Commisson; see Corriere della Sera, 31 October 2009: ‘Buone ragioni di una mossa; Sono onorato e grato al governo per l’appoggio’; and ‘Esteri UE, D’Alema in corsa «disponibilità di Berlusconi’.

12. See Corriere della Sera, 1 November 2009: ‘D’Alema: l’incarico all’UE? Non si decide tutto in Italia’.

13. See Corriere della Sera, 6 November 2009: ‘D’Alema in Europa, Berlusconi si muove: “Candidatura forte”’.

14. See Corriere della Sera, 12 November 2009: ‘Sul candidato italiano dubbi dalle donne del PDL’.

15. This was indeed the solution eventually found to such problems when Mario Monti replaced Berlusconi as Prime Minister in November 2011.

16. Ibidem and Corriere della Sera, 16 November 2009: ‘Ministro degli Esteri UE, no di Brunetta a D’Alema: “E’ un postcomunista”’.

17. See Corriere della Sera, 10 November 2009: ‘UE, Miliband “rinuncia”, D’Alema favorito’; and Corriere della Sera, 12 November 2009, cit.

18. See Corriere della Sera, 31 October 2009: ‘Fassino il regista dei contatti nel PSE’; Corriere della Sera, 01 November 2009, cit.; and La Repubblica, 3 November 2009: ‘UE, il caso D’Alema al tavolo Bersani-PSE’.

19. A referendum would be called if the Tories won the elections and if there were still some states opposed to the Treaty’s ratification. See the Guardian, 4 November 2009: ‘Czechs fire starting gun on EU presidential race after eight-year struggle to ratify treaty’.

20. Cameron and senior Tory MPs claimed they would try to repatriate crucial powers which the Tories believed should be exercised at national level (exclusive powers on social and employment policies as well as greater powers over justice and home affairs). See the Guardian, 5 October 2009: ‘Cameron retreats on European referendum: Johnson claims no rift over call for public vote: Decision may bring Blair presidency closer: Party will attempt to claw back UK powers’.

21. See the Sunday Times, 4 October 2009: ‘Tony Blair, the President no one really wants’; and the Independent, 29 October 2009: ‘Don’t give Tony Blair the post of EU President’.

22. Hague went as far as saying that Blair’s appointment could only happen ‘over his dead body’; see the Guardian, 22 October 2009: ‘Blair EU job would be hostile act, says Hague’ and Daily Mail, 22 October 2009: ‘Blair “to be made EU President next month”’.

23. See the Daily Telegraph, 29 October 2009: ‘Brown’s EU deals for Blair presidency’.

24. See the Guardian, 30 October 2009: ‘EU summit: Miliband shortlisted to be “foreign minister” of Europe: Foreign secretary emerges as contender for top role: “I am not available,” he insists at Brussels meeting’.

25. See Europolitics, 10 November 2009: ‘Institutions: Van Rompuy up, Miliband down in race for nominations’.

26. See la Repubblica, 18 November 2009: ‘Bagarre per le nomine ai vertici UE. Su D’Alema domani la decisione’.

27. See Corriere della Sera, 8 November 2009: ‘D’Alema in Europa: “per me poche chance”’.

28. The president’s powers are limited, and the office is ultimately ceremonial. The president will chair the sessions between the heads of the 27 EU member states and, not being a head of state, he/she will not be equal among them.

29. See Corriere della Sera, 19 November 2009: ‘La scelta di Berlino guardando alla BCE’.

30. It is interesting to note that, on 18 November, British bookmakers quoted the appointment of Lady Ashton at 6:1, while D’Alema was quoted at 2:1.

31. Ibidem.

32. See la Repubblica, 19 November 2009: ‘UE, si “raffredda” la corsa di D’Alema’.

33. See Corriere della Sera, 6 November 2009: op. cit., and la Repubblica, 6 November 2009: ‘D’Alema alla UE, Palazzo Chigi si muove’.

34. See la Repubblica, 17 November 2009: ‘D’Alema, “grana spagnola”, ma l’America l’appoggia’; la Repubblica, 12 November 2009: ‘Gli Eurosocialisti con D’Alema, candidato unico per il ministero UE’; and Corriere della Sera, 11 November 2009: ‘Brown insiste: “Blair deve essere il Presidente UE”’.

35. See the Sunday Times, 4 October 2009, op. cit.

36. See Europolitics, 14 October 2009: ‘EU institutions: Barroso’s new team: nominates, candidates and hopefuls’; and the Times, 5 October 2009: ‘France and Germany have eyes on powerful foreign post’.

37. See the Daily Telegraph, 29 October 2009, op. cit.

38. See the Times, 7 October 2009: ‘Blair envoy fights hard behind the scenes to give new European chief global reach’.

39. See the Guardian, 23 October 2009: ‘Miliband in frame for EU foreign supreme job as Blair’s presidential chances recede’; the Times, 23 October 2009: ‘Miliband touted for EU post as Blair’s chances wane’; the Independent, 24 October 2009: ‘Could it be Miliband – and not Blair – for Europe?’

40. See the Independent, 29 October 2009, op. cit.

41. See the Independent, 24 Ocober 2009: ‘Could it be Miliband – and not Blair – for Europe?’

42. See the Times, 31 October 2009: ‘EU summit: Jobs in Europe: Miliband favourite to be first foreign minister’.

43. See the Times, 5 November 2009: ‘The seven dwarfs line up to spoil Blair’s Europe dream’.

44. See the Guardian, 4 November 2009.

45. See Europolitics, 10 November 2009, op. cit.; the Guardian, 10 November 2009: ‘Doubts cast over Miliband link to top EU foreign role’ and Europolitics, 17 November 2009: ‘Eurocouncil: Freiberga-D’Alema as alternative ticket to Van Rompuy-Miliband?’

46. See the Guardian, 18 November 2009: ‘EU presidency: Democracy inaction: old politics mars new-look Europe’s first big decision’.

47. See the Independent, 30 October 2009: ‘Gordon Brown in heated exchange with German politician over predecessor’s chances of becoming EU President’ and Europolitics, 19 November 2009: ‘Eurocouncil: summit may go into extra time’.

48. See the Guardian, 20 November 2009: ‘EU presidency: One out, two in... a big day for Britain, Belgium – but not Blair’ and Europolitics, 25 November 2009: ‘Commission/Parliament: MEPs say jury still out on Ashton’.

49. See Daily Mail, 22 October 2009, op. cit.

50. See Corriere della Sera, 1 November 2009: ‘La spinta del PSE: lo sosterremo’.

51. See la Repubblica, 3 November 2009: ‘UE, il caso D’Alema al tavolo Bersani-PSE’.

52. See Corriere della Sera, 1 November 2009, op. cit.

53. See Corriere della Sera, 12 November 2009: ‘Nomine UE, c’è la data. Sostegno unanime dei socialisti a D’Alema’.

54. See la Repubblica, 12 November 2009, op. cit.

55. See Corriere della Sera, 20 November 2009: ‘UE: Van Rompuy presidente. Lady Ashton agli Esteri’; and la Repubblica, 20 November 2009: ‘UE, la sconfitta dell’Italia. D’Alema non sarà Mr. Pesc’.

56. See la Repubblica, 23 November 2009: ‘Noi socialisti europei abbiamo difeso D’Alema, ma l’Italia lo ha mollato’.

57. See la Repubblica, 24 November 2009: ‘D’Alema, PDL contro Schulz: ‘Bocciato da voi’’.

58. See the Sunday Times, 4 October 2009, op. cit.

59. See the Daily Telegraph, 9 October 2009, op. cit.

60. See Europolitics, 30 October 2009: ‘PES: Socialists want post of High Representative’ and the Times, 30 October 2009: ‘Blair’s chances of EU presidency fade amid calls for a chairman not a chief’.

61. See Europolitics, 2 November 2009: ‘Nominations/EU Council: Conservative President, Socialist High Rep?’

62. The relative importance of each frame is calculated as the number of citations divided by the total number of articles.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Luciano Bardi

Luciano Bardi is professor of political science in the Department of Political Sciences, University of Pisa.

Eugenio Pizzimenti

Eugenio Pizzimenti is lecturer in political science in the Department of Political Sciences, University of Pisa.