The Paradox of Security Force Assistance after the Rise and Fall of the Islamic State in Syria–Iraq

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on innovative conceptual definitions to capture the various terms and ideas that abound concerning the delivery of military assistance, aid, and training in fragile states, often subsumed under the term security force assistance (SFA). It highlights different Kurdish militias and units within the Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) to demonstrate inherent problems with any SFA program. We conduct a conceptual, theoretical, and empirical analysis to evaluate variations, concluding that in these contexts the definition of success and military effectiveness is contextual, often deviating from what the providers, such as the U.S. and other nations, may desire.

KEYWORDS:

• Military assistance
• security institutions
• Kurdish militias
• Iraqi security forces
• Iranian militias

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of each author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Air Force. This material is based upon work supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research under award number FA9550-20-1-0277.

Notes

1. Despite many estimates of 60,000 ISF personnel being stationed there, the number actually present was closer to 10,000 since corruptive practices like having “ghost soldiers” greatly inflated the number of personnel.

2. Turse (2019) is one of the few investigative journalists that is constantly writing in various outlets about U.S. military activities in Africa.

3. Much of this rests on Western assumptions of state-building that have been heavily influenced by Tilly (1975).

4. Sparta sent a general to Syracuse to prepare them for war with Athens.

5. In a variation on this theme, weak actors can provide resources to non-state actors as a proxy to destabilize their adversary. While similar in method, discussions on SFA typically focus on state-to-state interactions.

6. Kagame was there as a Ugandan military officer, and left halfway through his studies to fight against the Hutu regime in Rwanda in his rebel group: Front Patriotique Rwandais (RPF).

7. Canadian and German military works directly with the PUK and KDP Peshmerga that constitute the overall Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) armed forces. However, since KRG is autonomous, U.S. military aid must be funneled through the Iraqi government in Baghdad.

8. The biggest PMF groups are: Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada Brigade, Kata’ib Hizbullah, Badr Brigades, Peace Brigades, and Imam Ali Battalions.

Additional information

Funding

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of each author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Air Force.