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Abstract
This paper considers the autonomous racing of three cars, including a team of two cars and an opponent car. To handle it, the competition is modeled as a two-leader one-follower Stackelberg game to obtain the optimal strategies for each car. In the sequential game, all the cars maximise their progress while avoiding collisions. In the blocking game, blocking behaviours are taken into account by adding a reward to the payoff function. Through successful collaboration, actions are more aggressive in the second game. Given that the Stackelberg equilibrium is not unique in both games, the cost functions are designed for the players to cope with multiple strategies that have the same progress. The competitions are performed in a receding horizon fashion, and the aim of the research is to study the effects of cooperation and make the team have successful blocking behaviours under constraints as well as speed disadvantages.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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Zhenghao Hu
Zhenghao Hu received his B.E. degree in Measurement and Control Technology and Instrumentation from Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China, in 2020 and M.E. degree in Intelligent Science and Technology from Tongji University, Shanghai, China, in 2024. His research interests include game theory and autonomous racing.
Xiuxian Li
Xiuxian Li received the B.S. degree in mathematics and applied mathematics and the M.S. degree in pure mathematics from Shandong University, Jinan, China, in 2009 and 2012, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, in 2016. From 2016 to 2020, he has been a research fellow with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, and he has also been a senior research associate with the Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, in 2018. He held a visiting position at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Saudi Arabia, in September 2019. In 2020, he joined Tongji University, Shanghai, China, where he is now a professor. He is a senior member of IEEE. His research interests include distributed control and optimisation, game theory, unmanned systems, and autonomous vehicles.
Min Meng
Min Meng Min Meng received the B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Shandong University, China, in 2010 and 2015, respectively. She had a position as a Research Associate in Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China, from April to October in 2014, from July to September in 2016, and from January to March in 2017. From July 2015 to June 2016, she was a Research Associate in Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. From July 2017 to September 2020, she worked as a Research Fellow in the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. In 2020, she joined Tongji University, Shanghai, China, where she is now a professor. Her research interests include distributed games and optimisation, Boolean networks, distributed secure control and estimation, etc.
Wei Meng
Wei Meng received the B.E. and M.E. degrees from Northeastern University, Shenyang, China, in 2006 and 2008, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in control and instrumentation from the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, in 2013. From 2012 to 2017, he was a Research Scientist in UAV Research Group, Temasek Laboratories, National University of Singapore. He is now with School of Automation, Guangdong University of Technology as a Professor. His current research interests include unmanned systems, multi-robot systems, digital twins.