The Assessment of Intercultural Competence in Iranian EFL and Non-EFL Leaners: Knowledge, skill, awareness, and attitude

Abstract

The globalized era together with demographic, geographical, and structural changes to English has reshaped the landscape of English language teaching (ELT) and emphasized the importance of preparing language learners for intercultural communication. It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the relations of language and culture. The aim of the present study was to assess intercultural factors in learning and education on Iranian EFL and Non-EFL learners in terms of their attitude, knowledge, awareness, and skill. A quantitative research method was applied with 400 high school students who were 215 EFL Learners and 185 Non-EFL Learners which included both genders in the Summer term in 2019. The convenience sampling method was used. A questionnaire (by Fantini, 1999, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA; revised, 2013) was run. It was valid because it was a standardized questionnaire and its reliability was checked via Cronbach’s alpha (p < 0.000). The result of data analysis proved that taking EFL classes in institutions could be effective and based on the findings, it can be concluded that at least in the Iranian context participating in English classes in language institutions has a positive effect on their intercultural competence. The study showed the differences in intercultural competence in which EFL learners were more competent than non-EFL learners. Regarding pedagogical implications, the findings of this study can shed light on the book designer and teachers in schools.

Keywords:

• Attitude
• Awareness
• Intercultural Competence
• Knowledge
• Skill

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

This study provided useful insights about the significance of intercultural competence in foreign language teaching and learning in tertiary education settings. Such insights are important not only to enrich people’s knowledge and life experience through studies in linguistics, but also to enable foreign language teaching and learning at tertiary level to be both intellectually worthwhile and economically viable. The study of intercultural competence can awaken people’s cultural sensitivity, enable them to reflect on ethnocentrism, help the cultivation of an open attitude and the general development of a healthy personality.

Another point is that in Iran, which is a foreign language context, most learners do not have enough opportunity to be exposed to the English language due to the fact that English is not used outside the classroom; therefore, it is up to teacher, syllabus designers, material developers to provide tasks with different conditions and characteristics to fill this gap.

1. Introduction

Culture, a tangible term lending itself to diverse and ongoing definitions plays a vital role in language classrooms, and is defined as a fundamental part of the second language learning process. Growing professional articles and works with an emphasis on cultural issues in language learning indicate intercultural language learning as an important instructional objective as communication (Moore, 2006; Mozaffarzadeh, 2019). The education process in general, and learning languages specifically, depend on social communication, so intercultural competence has become a significant issue in English foreign language (EFL) classes (Islam, 2020). Teaching intercultural language represents a wider understanding of the distinction of language and culture which is being an essential subject in modern language education. Young people growing up today can expect to have various and numerous contacts with people from different cultures (Nehez, & Blossing, 2020). Intercultural contacts affect everyone on all levels of the global community, international trade, immigration, refugees, and other numerous situations developing in the world (Pekerti, van de Vijver, Moeller, & Okimoto, 2020).

A definition of culture suggests that culture is a system of learned behavior patterns that are characteristic of the members of any given society (Civitillo et al., 2019). Communicative competence prevailed as the main goal for language learners on how to use language appropriately in different situations. If language communicates culture, then culture is certainly something that is learned both by means of instruction as well as exposure. Also, knowing a language means being able to use a system of communication comprehensible to others (Hymes, 1986).

With the heightened profile of language learning in a global community, language education is exploring a new model of intercultural language learning (Verkuyten, & Yogeeswaran, 2020). Intercultural communicative competence can be considered one of the central aims of foreign language education (Byram, 2008; Gudykunst & Kim, 2003). So that learners can successfully communicate with people from different linguistic and cultural worlds. The study of intercultural competence can awaken people’s cultural sensitivity, enable them to reflect on ethnocentrism, help the cultivation of an open attitude and the general development of a healthy personality (Schachner, 2019a). Recently, the assessment of intercultural competence on learners’ language production and development is hotly debated. Another point is that in Iran, which is a foreign language context, most learners do not have enough opportunity to be exposed to the English language due to the fact that English is not used outside the classroom; therefore, it is up to teachers, syllabus designers, material developers to provide tasks with different conditions and characteristics to fill this gap. There have been few empirical studies, however, to provide an illustration of intercultural competence, in order to assess student’s understanding and development of intercultural competence in terms of knowledge, skill, awareness, and the attitude of Iranian EFL and Non-EFL Leaners to the best of researchers’ knowledge. Our aim was to show the effect of eliminating culture in teaching the target language, which has a negative effect on students’ conceptual learning. In this study, researchers tried to correct the shortcomings of Non-EFL classes in Iranian public schools by showing the differences.

Lack of empirical evidence of the development of intercultural competence and the identification and measurement of it, however, are acknowledged (Aliakbari, 2004; Foroozandeh, 2011; Liddicoat, 2009; Sercu, 2006; Harbon & Browett, 2006; Tu, Zhang & Chiu, 2020).

The aim of this study was to evaluate intercultural competence in EFL and Non-EFL students of high school in Iran in terms of knowledge, skill, awareness, and attitude.

1.1. Research questions

Following research questions led the course of the present study:

1. Is the knowledge of Iranian EFL learners and non-EFL learners different in term of intercultural competence?

2. Is the attitude of Iranian EFL learners and non-EFL learners different towards intercultural competence?

3. Is the skill of Iranian EFL learners and non-EFL learners different in terms of intercultural competence?

4. Is the awareness of Iranian EFL learners and non-EFL learners different in terms of intercultural competence?

1.2. Research hypotheses

Following research hypotheses led the course of the present study:

1. The knowledge of Iranian EFL learners and Non-EFL learners is different in term of intercultural competence?

2. The attitude of Iranian EFL learners and Non-EFL learners is different towards intercultural competence?

3. Tthe skill of Iranian EFL learners and Non-EFL learners is different in terms of intercultural competence?

4. The awareness of Iranian EFL learners and Non-EFL learners is different in terms of intercultural competence?

1.3. Literature of review

Intercultural competence comes to the dimensions or categories of IC and IC learning, different theories differ on their numbers and terminology. Persons’ attitudes are powerful tools in the way of how they communicate and relate with others (Atay et al., 2009; Deardorff, 2012; Hadis, 2005a; Sharif & Yarmohammadi, 2013; Silva et al., 2020; Vurdien & Puranen, 2020; Zenner & Squire, 2020). Positive and open attitudes impact on how effectively a person can develop and use their skills of discovery and interaction when communicating with others and this person is consequently less likely to experience distress when interacting with others (Al Khuja & Björkqvist, 2020; Byram et al., 2002, Collopy, Tjaden-Glass, & McIntosh, 2020; Hadis, 2005a; Zhai, 2000). Byram (1997); Solhaug, & Kristensen, (2019); Van Oudenhoven & Van der Zee, (2002); Nehez, & Blossing, (2020) also mention that attitudes are often interdependent, thus if one of the intercultural attitudes and traits is valued, it will probably affect the others, too.

Behavior in its narrow intercultural sense is mainly the ability to communicate with people of a different cultural background and is often used to describe skills that are employed in adjustment and communication situations (Schwarzenthal et al., 2020). There are many other behavioral factors that are connected to intercultural communication (Deardorff, 2006); J.M. Bennett, 2010; Li, 2020; Wiseman, 2001). The ability to bring the culture of origin and the foreign culture into relation with each other. The ability to identify and use a variety of strategies for contact with those from other cultures. The capacity to fulfill the role of cultural intermediary between one’s own culture and the foreign culture and to deal effectively with intercultural misunderstanding and conflict situations;—the ability to overcome stereotyped relationships (Auschner, 2020; Hammer et al., 2003; Swartz, Barbosa, & Crawford, 2019; Tsareva et al., 2020).

Byram classifies knowledge in ICC situations according to two broad categories: (1) knowledge about social groups and their cultures in the own country and about the target language culture and (2) knowledge about concepts and processes of interpersonal and societal interaction. This is what is generally referred to as culture-specific and culture-general knowledge. Culture-specific knowledge about one’s own country is also referred to as cultural self-awareness (Badstübner & Ecke, 2009; J.M. Bennett, 2010; Thapa, 2020) or is often paraphrased as “understanding of oneself and one’s own culture”. Zull (2012) also emphasizes that the IC learning process starts with uncovering and identifying subconscious behavioral patterns to raise the awareness of one’s own cultural links. As metacognition is a very salient aspect of learning, knowledge about oneself is an essential part of it (Badstübner & Ecke, 2009; J.M. Bennett, 2010; & Thapa, 2020; Paige et al., 2003; Zull, 2012). At the same time, self-knowledge is arguably the most remarkable brain function yet identified. They further conclude: Study abroad offers many opportunities for personal growth and understanding of ourselves.

As language and culture are interdependent and inseparable, cultural awareness in language learning becomes essential for language learners. A variety of scholars propose different perspectives about cultural awareness (Crozet & Liddicoat, 2000; Jones and Bond (2000; Thomlinson, 1991; Guerra,2020, & Zull, 2012). They propose three important qualities of cultural awareness: awareness of one ‘s own culturally-induced behavior, awareness of others ‘culturally-induced behavior and the ability to explain one ‘s cultural perspective.

This study provided useful insights about the significance of intercultural competence in foreign language teaching and learning in educational settings. Such insights are important not only to enrich people’s knowledge and life experience through studies in linguistics but also to enable foreign language teaching and learning at the tertiary level to be both intellectually worthwhile and economically viable. The study of intercultural competence can awaken people’s cultural sensitivity, enable them to reflect on ethnocentrism, help the cultivation of an open attitude and the general development of a healthy personality. There is no specific study investigating the perspectives of students towards intercultural competence in foreign language learning at the high school level and the challenges that needed to be addressed in relation to this area in the future. Therefore, there is an opportunity for this study to contribute to the field (Banafsheh et al., 2013; Burns;Kurosh & Kuhi, 2018).

2. Method

2.1. Participants

Participants of this study were Iranian EFL and Non-EFL learners who were studying at high schools, in Zanjan, Iran. They were selected among both males and females voluntarily, aged from 16 to 18. The sampling method was convenient. In this research, in order to choose the participants Cochran formula used in significant level (α = 0.05 and D = 0.05 and p = 0.05). According to Cochran’s formula, the sample size was 384 students, in order to be more assured of sample size, 400 high school students were chosen. Participants were 50% male and 50% female which was considered in this sampling. In the first stage, 200 male and 200 female students were selected. Among the 200 male students, 90 students were EFL learners, (students who were taken English classes in Language institutions out of school) and 110 Non- EFL learners (those who had not attended any English classes except school classes) and the female group included 125 EFL learners and 75 non-EFL learners. Finally, these selected participants were assigned to two groups consisting of 215 males and female EFL learners and 185 males and female Non-EFL learners. While the data were gathered, the EFL learners studying English in school classes two times a week and two times a week in their institutions, but non- EFL learners just attended English school classes two times a week.

2.2. Instruments

A standardized intercultural competence questionnaire (by Fantini, 1999, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA; revised 2013) was the main instrument in this study which was consisted of 53 questions and four parts. These four areas referred to four aspects of intercultural competence including 1. Knowledge of intercultural competence 2. Attitude towards intercultural competence 3. Skills of intercultural competence 4. Awareness of intercultural competence.

2.3. Procedure

The first stage of the main study was started by giving the questionnaire to participants. Due to the fact that giving questions to 400 participants at the same time was hard work, the researchers used social media on the Internet in order to interact with participants. The questionnaire was sent to participants by e-mail or through social media with a deadline for sending the answer. The researchers were ready to answer any questions and gave the appropriate examples to confused participants. According to statistics science and CLT when the sample size is near to intolerable (over 25), the sample size has a normal distribution. After gathering all the answered questionnaire, the scores were submitted to SPSS (version 22) to find out the results and the degree of difference between the two groups in each area.

The questions were in form of multiple questions in which the participants had to answer each question according to their ability in each aspect and gave numbers from 1 to 4. The questionnaire was designed in two languages English and Persian in order to be clear for all the participants with different levels of English. Thus, the questionnaire was given to participants based on their preference. However, all the Non-EFL learners preferred to take the Persian questionnaire.

In addition, some obvious examples were used in order to facilitate the understanding of complicated questions. And in some cases, the researcher had to explain the meaning of some questions to some participants with less familiarity with intercultural competence.

The questionnaire was valid because it was a standardized questionnaire and its reliability was checked via Cronbach’s alpha. The reliability of the Persian translation of the questionnaire, the translation was given to some experts in order to be reliable.

2.4. Backward and forward translation

In order to be sure about the participants’ answers to the questions, they were translated into the Persian language. First the English versions were given to two expert translators to translate them into the Persian language, and then, two other expert translators were asked to translate the Persian versions of the questions into English language and these versions were compared by the original English questionnaires by two other experts in the English language and finally, one of the Persian versions of the questionss which were the most appropriate translated version was selected as the questionnaire of the current research.

2.5. Data analysis

In this study, a mean comparison for the independent statistical population was used. In parametric mode and independent t-test and in non-parametric mode Man-Whitney was applied. In order to get the reliability of the scores, according to statistics science and CLT when the sample size is near to intolerable (over 25), the mean of sample size has a normal distribution. Although in this research the sample size in both groups was more than 25, therefore, the parametric condition of using mean comparison of two independent statistical populations was established. As result, a parametric t-test was used to apply to compare the mean in this study. All of the statistical tests were applied in SPSS (version 22) insignificant level α = 0.05.Thus, in order to answer the questions, an independent sample t-test was run.

2.6. Ethical principles

1. Obtaining a letter of introduction from the responsible authorities to present to the sampling centers.

2. Achieving informed satisfaction in research by stating the objectives of the study, how to cooperate, method of data collection, respect for privacy.

3. Keeping all information confidential (including participants’ names, questionnaires, files and writings).

4. The right of participants to withdraw at any stage of the research is reserved.

5. 5- Getting written consent from the students’ parents.

3. Results

3.1. Estimating reliability

First, the reliabilities of the scores were calculated. Raters confirmed the translated questionnaire. Then, inter-rater reliabilities were estimated. The results were provided in Table 1.

Table 1. The Estimation of the Inter-Rater Reliability

Dimensions of Performance	Groups	Cronbach’s Alpha
Knowledge	Non-EFL	0.87
	EFL	0.75
Attitude	Non-EFL	0.81
	EFL	0.73
Skill	Non-EFL	0.78
	EFL	0.89
Awareness	Non-EFL	0.75
	EFL	0.79

*EFL learners, (students who were taken English classes in Language institutions out of school) * Non- EFL learners (those did not attend in any English classes except school classes)

As seen in Table 1, all the inter-rater reliabilities’ values were relatively high and are at a satisfactory level (above 0.7); therefore, the results indicate high inter-rater reliability for all data sets.

3.2. Data analysis

According to statistics science and Central limit Theorem (CLT) when the sample size is near to intolerable (over 25), the sample size has a normal distribution. The results were provided as follows.

3.3. Data analysis of the first research question

The first research question was about differences in intercultural knowledge in EFL and Non-EFL learners. Intercultural knowledge was measured based on the first part of the intercultural competence questionnaire (by Fantini, 1999, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA; revised 2013). First of all, the normality of the data was proved according to statistics science and CLT that is said when the sample size is near to intolerable (over 25), the sample size has a normal distribution. Table 2 indicates the data obtained from the assessment of intercultural knowledge of the participants in two groups.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Performance in Terms of Intercultural Knowledge

Group	N	Mean	S. D	Df	T	Sig
Non-EFL	185	21.71	4.09	398,398	1568	0.000
EFL	215	29.60	5.69

Comparing mean of intercultural knowledge in EFL and Non-EFL learners

According to the results in (Table 2), a significant difference was observed in the average knowledge in the study groups (EFL and Non-EFL) (sig <0.01). This result leads to the confirmation of the researchers’ hypothesis.

As mean scores of intercultural knowledge in the EFL learners group was 29.60 and in Non-EFL learners group was 21.71. Thus, it indicated the positive effects of EFL classes that the learners participated in out of school.

3.4. Data analysis of the second research question

The second research question was about differences in intercultural attitude in EFL and Non-EFL learners. The intercultural attitude was measured based on the second part of the intercultural competence questionnaire (by Fantini, 1999, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA; revised 2013). First of all, the normality of the data was proved according to statistics science and CLT that is said when the sample size is near to intolerable (over 25), the sample size has a normal distribution. Table 3 indicate the data obtained from the assessment of the intercultural knowledge of the participants in two groups.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Performance in Terms of Intercultural Attitude

Group	N	Mean	SD	df	T	P
Non-EFL	185	32.70	5.74	398	−10.14	0.00
EFL	215	37.39	3.35

*Comparison the mean of intercultural attitude in EFL and non-EFL learners

According to the results in (Table 3), a significant difference was observed in the mean attitude in the study groups (EFL and Non-EFL) (sig <0.01). This result leads to the confirmation of the researchers’ hypothesis.

As seen in Table 3, there is a significant difference between the mean scores of intercultural attitude in EFL and non-EFL groups (p < 0.001). As mean scores of intercultural attitude in EFL learners group was 37.39 and in the non-EFL learners group was 32.73. Therefore, it indicated the positive effects of EFL classes that the learners participated in out of school.

3.5. Data analysis of the third research question

The third research question was about differences in intercultural skill in EFL and Non-EFL learners. The intercultural skill was measured based on the third part of the intercultural competence questionnaire (by Fantini, 1999, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA; revised 2013). First of all, the normality of the data was proved according to statistics science and CLT that is said when the sample size is near to intolerable (over 25), the sample size has a normal distribution. Table 4 indicates the data obtained from the assessment of the intercultural skill of the participants in two groups.

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Performance in Terms of Intercultural Skill

Group	N	Mean	SD	Df	T	P
Non-EFL	185	24.52	2.72	398	−9.16	0.00
EFL	215	27.33	3.31

Comparison the mean of intercultural skill in EFL and Non-EFL learners

According to the results in (Table 4), a significant difference was observed in the average skill in the study groups (EFL and Non-EFL) (sig <0.01). This result leads to the confirmation of the researcher hypothesis.

As seen in Table 4, there is a significant difference between the mean scores of intercultural skill in EFL and Non-EFL groups (p < 0.001). As mean scores of intercultural skill in EFL learners group was 27.33 and in the Non-EFL learners group was 24.52. Thus, it indicated the positive effects of EFL classes that the learners participated in out of school.

3.6. Data analysis of the fourth research question

The fourth research question was about differences in intercultural awareness in EFL and NON-EFL learners. Intercultural awareness was measured based on the third part of the intercultural competence questionnaire (by Fantini, 1999, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA; revised 2013). First of all, the normality of the data was proved according to statistics science and CLT that is said when the sample size is near to intolerable (over 25), the sample size has a normal distribution. Table 5 indicates the data obtained from the assessment of the intercultural awareness of the participants in two groups.

Table 5. Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Performance in Terms of Intercultural Awareness

Group	N	Mean	S.D	df	t	P
Non-EFL	185	43.10	4.98	398	−11.81	0.00
EFL	215	48.79	4.62

Comparison the mean of intercultural awareness in EFL and non-EFL learners

According to the results in (Table 5), a significant difference was observed in the average knowledge in the study groups (EFL and Non-EFL) (sig <0.01). This result leads to the confirmation of the researchers’ hypothesis.

As seen in Table 5, there is a significant difference between the mean scores of intercultural skill in EFL and Non-EFL groups (P < 0.001). As mean scores of the intercultural skill in EFL learners group was 48.79 and in Non-EFL learners group was 43.10. Thus, it indicated the positive effects of EFL classes that the learners participated in out of school.

4. Discussion

4.1. Intercultural knowledge

Based on the results of the intercultural competence, sample t-test on the measures of intercultural knowledge revealed that the Iranian EFL learners significantly had more knowledge of intercultural competence (with the mean of 29.60), in comparison with the Non-EFL learners (with the mean of 21.71). Therefore, it can be declared that participating in English classes of language institutions can enhance the Knowledge of the intercultural competence.

Apparently, while the participants of EFL learners were answering the questionnaire, it was sensible that they had some knowledge of intercultural competence because they asked some questions for more information, they expressed some examples about their experience in their English classes in language institutions. For instance, they explained that they got familiar with some norms and taboos of the target cultures in movies or songs have listened in institution’s classes. Even they claimed that the format of language institutions books is very different from schools’ book in case of regarding the cultural factors of target language.

In contrast, in the Non-EFL learners’ group, the participants had so many problems in perceiving the question and most of them were unfamiliar with the concept. Thus, in the process of answering they had some difficulties which were acquired when the researcher illustrated those questions. It was undeniable that they were alienated from the culture of the target language because the school classes didn’t focus on the culture of the language so much.

These findings are in line with the findings of some studies in which significant differences were found in comparison the intercultural competence in EFL and Non-EFL learners (such as Ashraf et al. (2013); Klein and Dawar (2004); (Liddicoat, 2006); Nejabat (2016); Sercu (2006). For example, the study of J.M. Bennett’s (2010) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) suggests that learners develop their intercultural competence on the continuum from ethnocentric stages to ethno relative stages. The findings of the present study support Bennett’s model in that the Vietnamese EFL learners developed their intercultural competence in a linear way across different topics. However, the results did not show linear development across time. This suggests that a focus on developing learners ‘intercultural awareness and knowledge at the beginning of language learning is essential as it can largely help them minimize ethnocentric attitudes and develop ethno relative awareness and attitudes towards other cultures.

Although in some studies, there are some differences in some aspects of the study. For instance in Atai et al. (2017) research, students did not have so much tendency to get familiar with the cultural factors but in this study, EFL learners were eager to learn about intercultural competence. Thus, it can be concluded that having eagerness to intercultural competence depends on too many factors including individual factors and the needs of learners.

4.2. Intercultural attitude

The second research question dealt with the differences in intercultural attitude between Iranian EFL and Non-EFL learners. The results indicated that Iranian EFL significantly had a more positive attitude of intercultural competence (with the mean of 37.39), in comparison with the Non-EFL learners (with the mean of 32.70). Therefore, it can be declared that participating in English classes of language institutions can enhance the positive attitudes towards intercultural competence.

On the one hand, while the participants of EFL learners were answering the questionnaire, it was sensible that they had a positive attitude towards intercultural competence because they asked some questions for more information and examples. Even they complained about the format of the school’s book in case of regarding the cultural factors of the target language and lack of attention to the culture of the target language and some exaggerated censorship of the materials are tedious.

In contrast on the other hand, in the Non-EFL learners’ group, the participants had so many problems in perceiving the question and most of them were unfamiliar with the concept. Thus, in the process of answering they had some difficulties which were acquired when the researcher illustrated those questions. It was undeniable that they were alien to the culture of the target language because the school classes did not so much focus on the culture of the language. In addition, non-EFL learners were acquiescent and did not have eager to learn about the culture of the target language. These findings are in line with the findings of some studies in which significant differences were found in comparison the intercultural competence in EFL and Non-EFL learners (such as Ashraf et al. (2013); Klein and Dawar (2004), Liddicoat, (2006); Schwarzenthal et al. (2020).

Although in some studies, there are some differences in some aspects of the study for instance, in Ahmadi Safa et al. (2015), research students didn’t have so much tendency to get familiar with the cultural factors but in this study, EFL learners were eager to learn about intercultural competence. Thus, it can be concluded that having an eagerness to intercultural competence depends on too many factors including individual factors and the needs of learners.

In the second research question, it was claimed that the result of most studies in line with the present research in which the importance of focusing on cultural factors enhance the intercultural competence in terms of intercultural attitudes.

Moreover, Ashraf et al. (2013) reported that the learners who had higher English proficiency levels were more affected than those who had lower proficiency levels in their attitude towards the intercultural competence; in other words, the learners who enjoyed higher proficiency levels in English and hence were able to move beyond the linguistic elements of a foreign language towards the cultural domains underwent more changes in their attitudes.

4.3. Intercultural skill

The next research question investigated the differences in intercultural skill between Iranian EFL and Non-EFL learners. The results indicated that Iranian EFL significantly had more skill of intercultural competence (with the mean of 27.33), in comparison with the Non-EFL learners (with the mean of 24.52). Therefore, it can be declared that participating in English classes of language institutions can enhance the skill of intercultural competence.

While the participants of EFL learners were answering the questionnaire, it was obvious that they had more skill of intercultural competence because not only they answered the questions easily but also they expressed some examples of their experience in their English classes in the language institutions. For instance, they explained that they got familiar with some strategies to interact appropriately in a different situation. Even they claimed that the format of language institutions books is very different from school’s book in case of regarding the cultural factors of the target language and lack of attention to culture of the target language and some exaggerated censorship of the materials are tedious and is not useful in terms of interaction strategies.

In contrast on the other hand, in the Non-EFL learners group, the participants had so many problems in perceiving the question and most of them were unfamiliar with the concept. So, in the process of answering they had some difficulties which were acquired when the researcher illustrated those questions. It was undeniable that they were alienated from the culture of the target language because the school classes did not so much focus on the culture of the language. In addition, Non-EFL learners were acquiescent and did not have eager to learn about intercultural strategies in the target language.

These findings are in line with the findings of some studies in which significant differences were found in comparison with the intercultural competence in EFL and Non-EFL learners (such as Dziedziewicz et al., 2014; Liddicoat, 2009; Risager, 2006; Sercu, 2002; Yu & Chang, 2009).

Although in some studies, there are some differences in some aspects of the study for instance in Ahmadi Safa et al. (2015) research, students did not have so much a tendency to get familiar with the cultural factors but in this study EFL learners were eager to learn about intercultural competence. So It can be concluded that having eager to learn intercultural skill depends on too many factors including individual factors and the needs of learners.

To sum up, the third research question, it was claimed that the result of most studies in line with the present research in which the importance of the focusing on cultural factors enhance the intercultural competence in terms of intercultural skill.

4.4. Intercultural awareness

The last research question dealt with the differences in intercultural awareness between Iranian EFL and Non-EFL learners. The results indicated that Iranian EFL significantly had a more positive attitude of intercultural competence (with the mean of 48.79), in comparison with the non-EFL learners (with the mean of 43.1081). Therefore, it can be declared that participating in English classes of language institutions can enhance a more degree of intercultural awareness.

These findings are in line with the findings of some studies in which significant differences were found in comparison with the intercultural competence in EFL and Non-EFL learners (such as Klein & Dawar, 2004; Liddicoat, 2006; Poker, van de Vijver, Moeller, & Okimoto, 2020; ; ; Tu, Zhang & Chiu, 2019; Yanjun Nehez, & Blossing, 2020). For example, Shaules (2007) argues that learners can be found in mixed states of resistance, acceptance, and adaptation at the same time. The positive effect of the intercultural intervention indicated that there were almost no ethnocentric attitudes evident in the IC class. This suggests that a focus on developing learners ‘intercultural awareness and attitudes at the beginning of language learning is essential as it can largely help them minimize ethnocentric attitudes and develop ethno relative awareness and attitudes towards other cultures.

In addition to what was concluded from the whole study, going through questions in questionnaire in detail, leaves some logical results. As stated in literature, culture teaching is easier than language teaching. The result in Iran seems different compared with what had been concluded in research by Caroline Mohoney (2009) in Japan. Caroline Mohoney, after interviewing and observing the classes of two non-native speaking teachers, had concluded that teachers view culture teaching easier than language teaching. However, in this study, it is observed that majority believes that culture teaching is not easier than language teaching in Iran. It is clearly coming back to their difficulties in incorporating culture in their classrooms, the top three difficulties, poor knowledge of foreign culture, shortage of suitable recourses and lack of time.

To sum up, the last research question, it was claimed that the result of most studies is in line with the present research in which the importance of the focusing on cultural factors enhance the intercultural competence in terms of intercultural attitudes.

5. Conclusion

In general, it was found out teachers spent little time on intercultural competence in high schools in contrast to teachers in institutions. In high school, concentration was on language teaching because it was important for students to pass the major examinations at the end of high school. But in institutions, the goal of learning English was mostly communication and the ability to interact appropriately in the target language. Therefore, it was obvious that one of the focus of the teaching process should be attention to intercultural competence.

The study revealed barriers that hinder the attention to intercultural competence in high schools. These barriers included a rigid curriculum and textbooks that did not address intercultural competence in sufficient detail, examinations that did not cover intercultural competence and teachers’ lack of confidence and competence in teaching intercultural competence. The reduction in these barriers should provide the impetus for more effective teaching of intercultural competence. It is important that all stakeholders, teachers, students, teacher educators, and government policymakers, work together to devise more effective ways of teaching this aspect of the English curriculum in schools.

6. Limitations

Some limitations in this study threated the generalizability of the results. They are enumerated as follows:

1. The adoption of all the participants from two high school can threaten the generalizability of the study.

2. Investigating the degree of factors like skill, knowledge, attitude and awareness through just one questionnaire can also affect the generalizability of the results. Therefore, it may be more helpful if more types of task and questionnaire and greater number of tasks accomplished by greater number of learners from different high schools were selected and investigated.

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Mahsa Vajak

Mahsa Vajak - is an EFL teacher in institute in theZanjan province of Iran. Her research interests liein TEFL and first and second language acquisition.This article has been extracted from her thesis forthe degree of the master of art in teachingEnglish as a foreign language.

Siros Izadpanah

Dr. Siros Izadpanah is Ph.Dand an EFL lecturer atIslamic Azan University, Zanjan Branch, Iran. Hehas published more than 65 articles in differentjournals in the world. Also, he has written sevenbooks and presented 15 articles at internationalconferences in the world.

Javad Naserian

Javad Naserian is Ph.D and statistics lecturer at Islamic Azan University, Zanjan Branch, Iran. He has published more than 10 articles in different journals in the world.