Sixty-six years of a guidance service delivery in Ghana: Analysis of stakeholders' attitudes and perceived relevance on career success

Abstract

This study examined 66 years of guidance service delivery in Ghana by analysing stakeholders’ attitudes and perceived relevance to career success. The study employed positivist philosophy and cross-sectional survey methods. A sample of 413 comprised basic school headteachers, school guidance coordinators, and district guidance coordinators across 15 regions in Ghana. A self-developed questionnaire was used to gather the data and analysed with Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling (fourth-generation analytical tools). The study found that stakeholders’ attitudes towards guidance services at the basic school level were significantly related to policy implementation, perceived relevance, and career success. Additionally, perceived relevance or guidance services were also found to have a significant relationship with policy implementation, monitoring, and career success. Perceived relevance was also found to have a mediating influence on the relationship between attitude and career success and attitude and policy implementation on guidance services at the basic school level. The study recommends that the government of Ghana, through Ghana Education Service, should develop a more positive attitude towards guidance services by providing office allocation, logistics, special allowance or remuneration, and dedicated time for guidance services at the basic school level.

Keywords:

• guidance services
• attitude
• perceived relevance
• policy implementation
• monitoring and evaluation
• career success

1. Background

The introduction of guidance services in 1955 by the government of Ghana was to organise a national system of vocational guidance by establishing Youth Employment Services for all youth under 20 years who hold the Middle School Leaving Certificate (Essuman, 1999). The aim for further introduction of guidance services at all levels of the Ghanaian educational system was to ensure that the educational training of the citizenry was at par with their career interest. The need to introduce guidance services was to address the vocational and employment needs of the youth. This was because many youths were becoming dissatisfied and frustrated because they could not get the jobs they wanted since their training did not prepare them for specific jobs (Mintah, 2012). The case is no different after 66 years of guidance services in Ghana since there is still incongruity between career aspirations and academic programmes pursued by learners (Segbenya et al., 2021). Addressing the incongruences will help foster policy on the delivery of guidance services and its ultimate benefit of reducing youth unemployment in the country.

Several studies have examined the existence and effectiveness of guidance services in Ghana from its inception and have found that guidance services were operational in Ghanaian schools but were not effective (Adzakpa et al., 2019; Ahyia, 2010; Asamari, 2018; Asiedu-Yirenkyi et al., 2019; Kemetse et al., 2018; Mintah, 2012; Nyarko–Sampson, 2013). Ocansey (2012) has established that the success of school guidance services is anchored on stakeholders’ support. Therefore, the ineffectiveness of guidance services could be attributed to stakeholders’ lack of commitment and support.

This study, therefore, seeks to examine the attitudes of stakeholders and the perceived relevance of the guidance services in the first cycle institutions in Ghana. The first cycle institutions in Ghana remain the basic unit where decisions on academic programmes (to progress to secondary schools) determine one’s career choice. The type of academic programme pursued at secondary school determines what programme one can pursue at the university and subsequently finalise career choice decisions. Thus, guidance service at the basic unit serves as the foundation for the right choice of secondary and university education programmes, thereby making a successful career choice. These reasons explain why the first-cycle institutions in Ghana were selected for this study. The study is guided by eight hypotheses such as:

Hypotheses

1. H0₁: There is no significant relationship between stakeholders’ attitudes toward guidance service delivery and career success.

2. H0₁: There is no significant relationship between stakeholders’ attitudes toward guidance service delivery and policy implementation and monitoring on guidance services.

3. H0₁: There is no significant relationship between stakeholders’ attitudes toward guidance service delivery and perceived relevance of guidance services.

4. H0₁: There is no significant relationship between policy implementation and monitoring on guidance services and career success of beneficiaries of guidance services at the basic school level.

5. H0₁: There is no significant relationship between perceived relevance of guidance services and career success of beneficiaries of guidance services at the basic school level.

6. H0₁: There is no significant relationship between perceived relevance of guidance services and policy implementation and monitoring of guidance services at the basic school level.

7. H0₁: Perceived relevance statistically and significantly mediated the relationship between attitude and career success of beneficiaries of guidance services.

8. H0₁: Perceived relevance statistically and significantly mediated the relationship between attitude and policy implementation and monitoring of guidance services at the basic school level.

2. Literature review

Every growing child needs one form of guidance service or the other. The guidance services could range from information services, orientation services, placement services, remedial services, referral services, appraisal services, evaluation and research services, as well as follow-up services. These services are geared towards helping the individual realise his or her potential, particularly in the area of choosing a career. Choosing the right career plays an essential role since it has an influence on the individual identity, beliefs, and mental well-being (Madu et al., 2022). This defines how significant guidance services are at the first cycle institutions. If people do not find themselves in the right job as a result of inadequate guidance services, it could affect their psychological well-being. When school guidance coordinators allocate enough time, are adequately resourced and have furnished conducive rooms or space, it will improve students’ academic work. For this reason, the next section under the literature review considers discussions on the key variables of the study such as attitude, perceived relevance implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies on guidance services at the basic school level, and career success.

2.1. Attitudes

Attitudes of stakeholders can positively or negatively influence guidance service delivery in pre-tertiary institutions. In this study, attitude is conceptualised as the behaviour of stakeholders towards resource allocation, funding, and time allocation logistics provision including office space. A study by Kundu et al. (2021) to examine the challenges facing the implementation of guidance and counselling programs revealed that insufficient funds, insufficient resources, and lack of sufficiently trained teachers are hampering implementation of guidance service delivery.

2.2. Relevance of guidance services

The relevance of guidance service delivery at the basic school institutions globally is recognised and, as such, draws the attention of administrators, academics, and researchers ELGPN (2015; UK Government, 2022). ELGPN (2015) acknowledges that young people need information when choosing subjects and careers. The statutory guidance document appreciates that in order to assist students graduate from school more well-rounded and prepared for the workforce, high-quality, independent career counselling is essential. Governments and people have long recognised the need of providing career counselling to assist individuals in accessing all kinds of study and employment opportunities as well as for mobility (UK Government, 2022). This is due to the fact that such services prepare the young ones to fit into their respective careers. Bolu-Steve and Oredugba (2017) identified five ways guidance services are relevant to students, for instance, development of students’ potential, helping students with developing problems, decision-making, development of school’s curriculum and offer of technical services. Ain, Gilani, and Lone’s (2021) study revealed that the majority of the respondents agreed that guidance services in schools are relevant since it could help them decide in a better way. Their findings tied in with a study by Arfasa and Weldmeskel (2020) whose study examined the practices and challenges of guidance and counselling services in southwest Ethiopia's secondary schools. Their study affirmed that guidance service delivery in schools is very relevant. Their study further indicated that guidance services are also hampered by several challenges, including a lack of professionally trained guidance coordinators and the required facilities or resources. Contrarily, a study by Olanrewaju and Suleiman (2019) indicated that stakeholders such as school administrators, teachers, and parents had negative perceptions of guidance services delivery. This means that they did not realize the relevance of guidance services to address students' the academic, social, and economic difficulties.

2.3 Implementation, monitoring, and evaluation

Policy implementation is conceptualised as a means of changing a formulated policy into actuality. It provides the operational area of function in carrying out the policy declared by competent authority (Ajulor, 2018). From a similar perspective, Ajaegbu and Eze (2010) view policy implementation as the process and activities involved in the application, effectuation, and administration of a policy. Ajae and Eze’s conceptualization indicates that a variety of activities are involved in policy implementation, including issuing and enforcing directives, disbursing funds, signing contracts, collecting data, analyzing problems, hiring and assigning personnel, setting committees and commissions, assigning duties and responsibilities, and also making interim decisions (Nweke, 2006). Teething issues bedevil implementation of guidance programmes across schools (Anagbogu et al., 2013; Songok et al., 2013). For instance, Low (2009) outlines four types of problems that face implementation of guidance services, namely internal, external, systems, and personal challenges. Internal issues have to do with clientele groups, teachers’ attitudes towards counselling and pupils’ willingness to seek counselling. External challenges are issues outside the school which involve culture and globalization; system challenges are things within the programme, which include law establishing its practice in schools, referral procedures, and resource allocation. Personal challenges include skills and techniques of the counsellor including training, supervision, and attitude towards the school programme.

A study was conducted by Angelista (2018) to find out the challenges facing secondary school teachers in implementing career guidance and their implication on the students’ future job choices. The study indicated that guidance services were poorly implemented in the school. This came about as a result of the fact that teachers had little knowledge of guidance service delivery. The findings were in line with the study by Egbo (2015) and Gudyanga et al. (2015), who also revealed that guidance services were not properly implemented due to lack of funds, insufficient time allocation, inadequate resources and facilities, heavy workload, and lack of knowledge on the part of implementers.

Pedroso et al. (2022) also conducted a study to evaluate the factors that affect the implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of guidance services in pre-tertiary institutions. Their study revealed that material resources, stakeholders’ full participation through collaboration and cooperation were some of the factors affecting the implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of guidance services. This means that guidance service delivery would be successful if material resources, including digital tools, were readily made available. The study also showed that successful implementation of guidance service delivery calls for stakeholders’ collaboration and cooperation in various ways such as connecting to discuss guidance issues.

2.4 Career success

Career success has most frequently been associated with individual positive outcomes and the achievement of their career. Historically, career success has been described as a bundle of interactions between societal norms, organisational, individual behaviours, and work practices (Seibert & Kraimer, 2001; Sołowiej et al., 2014). In recent times, career success has been described as the collection of psychological and positive work outcomes from the work experiences of an individual (Sołowiej et al., 2014). The recent description, therefore, positioned career success within an internal and external dimension. From this perspective, the success of a career thus entails a subjective and objective constituent (Hennequin, 2007). Objective career success relates to the traditional perspective of career success which is based on the human capital theory which emphasises skills development over time through tenure with an organisation (Levenson et al., 2006). Thus, the objective perspective of career success focuses on measurable and observable predictors such as rewards, job position and salary, work experience, and educational attainment as pivotal to success (Feldman & Feldman, 2010; Hogan et al., 2013). The drawback of the objective career success was the limit it places on how many workers can truly realise higher career success (Sołowiej et al., 2014).

Based on the drawbacks of objective career success, a subjective career success perspective was introduced which relates to an adaptable and boundaryless perspective that the individual ultimately determines concerning their career. Therefore, subjective career success describes job satisfaction, self-fulfillment, and achievement that an individual can have with their job or career (Dries, 2011; McDonald & Hite, 2008; Sołowiej et al., 2014). Identifiable dimensions of subjective career success are a time for self, status, social, challenge, security, work-life balance, and job satisfaction (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000; Sołowiej et al., 2014). Notwithstanding the sharp contrasts between the subjective and objective career success in literature, Sołowiej et al. (2014) posits that researchers should study the two approaches as two-sided perspectives and should not consider them as “an either-or option” (Judge & Hurst, 2007). It is for this reason that this study measures career success from both subjective and objective perspectives. This study, however, added a retrospective approach by looking at how guidance services are provided for individuals before and during career choice, academic progressions and skills training for individual career development. In this light, the study added stakeholders’ attitudes and the relevance of providing effective guidance services at the basic level of education where most career choices are made and later pursued or developed at subsequent educational levels. Thus, this study argues that a blend of positive attitudes of stakeholders in terms of resource allocation, policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and proper relevance attached to guidance services at the basic school level has a strong relationship with individual subjective and objective career success in life.

2.5 Theoretical review

Holland’s theory of vocational types guides this study. Gottfredson and Holland (1966) propounded a typology based on the premise that career choices are expressions of the total personality of an individual and that people tend to search for a working environment that will match their personality types. The satisfaction, thus, derived from a career chosen depends on the compatibility of a person’s work situation and personality style. Holland’s theory of career choice states that job satisfaction and achievement are highest when personality types are matched with the compatible work environment. He emphasised that it is vital for people to have adequate knowledge of themselves and occupational requirements to make informed career decisions (Holland, 1973). In his theory, Holland identified six different types of personalities and career types that can be matched. This can only be done if guidance services are effective in schools.

Holland’s theory has been tested and re-tested. One of the focus areas has been that of congruency, which can be described as reflecting the degree to which an individual’s personal qualities match environmental demands in chosen careers (Miller, 2006). In essence, Holland’s theory predicts that individuals will choose careers that are consistent with their personal characteristics. However, lack of self-knowledge and career information might impede on making career choices which might lead to individuals making career choices that lie outside individual’s dominant personality domains resulting in poor personality/occupational fit (Bandura, 2001; Budge et al., 2010). The theory is still relevant for contemporary career-development professionals and the world of work, even though it is held that research has failed to find a strong link between congruence and outcomes, such as satisfaction and performance (Vulcan, 2017). The implication of the theory in the present study is that every occupation has a work environment which must be compatible with the personal orientation of students to ensure satisfaction. Achieving a perfect match, to a large extent, is dependent on the attitude of stakeholders (such as school counsellors, head teachers, and district guidance coordinators) towards the delivery of guidance services at the basic school level and beyond.

The second theory of this study was adopted to cater for the need for a modern theory to explain the purpose for introducing guidance services in basic schools in Ghana. For this reason, the theory of job matching was considered appropriate. The goal of job matching theory is to ensure that job entrants have the skills they need to be motivated to perform varied tasks at work (Jonck, 2017, Segbenya et al., 2021). The job matching theory contends that workers’ productivity, pay, and future employment prospects will suffer if their skill set does not match what is required by employers at any given time in their careers (Segbenya et al., 2021). The relevance of the job matching theory to this study is very important from two perspectives. The first stems from the fact that guidance services in basic schools in Ghana were introduced 66 years ago to address the challenge of skill mismatch between what graduates acquired and what was required by employers. Thus, the theory helps this study to determine further how guidance services at primary schools help to reduce skills mismatch. The second relevance or perspective for adopting the job matching theory for this study is its relevance in helping to determine the effectiveness of guidance service provisions for a reduction in career aspiration or interest and academic programme selection for further education at the basic school level.

Based on the conceptual and the theoretical review, a conceptual framework was developed to guide this study as presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework guiding the study.

Alt text: Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework guiding the study. It shows the relationship between four variables: attitude of stakeholders towards GS, policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation on GS, and perceived relevance of GS and career success.

3. Methodology

3.2

The conceptual framework, therefore, depicts the relationship between the three independent variables of the study (attitude of stakeholders towards guidance services, perceived relevance of guidance services, and policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation on guidance services) and the dependent variable of the study-career success of seven of guidance services.

Table

School headteachers	123
School guidance coordinators	207
District guidance coordinators	83

4. Methodology

This study adopted a descriptive survey design with a sample of 413 stakeholders – basic school headteachers, school guidance coordinators, and district guidance coordinators from a study population of 16,164 across 15 regions in Ghana. The sample (413) represents 2.6% of the study population which gives a better representation and is even higher than the 377 recommended by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) sample determination table. The 413 sampled are made up of 123 school teachers, 207 school guidance coordinators, and 83 district guidance coordinators. Multistage sampling techniques, including stratified and simple random techniques, were deployed to sample the respondents for the study.

A self-developed questionnaire measured on a 4-point Likert scale such as strongly disagree, disagree, agree, and strongly agree was used to collect the data. The data collection instrument had five parts. The first part focused on respondents’ demographic characteristics, and the second was dedicated to stakeholders’ attitudes towards guidance services. Parts three and four of the questionnaire also addressed the policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation of guidance services, and relevance of guidance services. The last part of the questionnaire addressed the last variable of the study, which was career success. Thus, apart from part one, all the remaining four parts helped to gather data to test the hypotheses guiding this study. The instrument was deemed appropriate for the main data collection after a pre-test was carried out with a reliability Cronbach's alpha value above 0.70 was established. Data were analysed with Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to test the hypotheses. All ethical considerations, including informed consent, freedom to participate and withdraw at any time of the study, no harm to the research participant, and confidentiality and anonymity, were ensured during the entire data collection process. Ethical clearance (ID—UCCIRB/EXT/2022/24) was therefore granted by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Cape Coast for carrying out this study.

5. Analysis and findings

This section is divided into two main parts: The demographic characteristics of respondents and the main results for the hypothesis guiding the study. The first part on the demographic characteristics of the respondents is presented in Table 1. It can be observed from Table 1 that most of the study respondents were female (62.0%) and have worked for about 11 years and above as either a school guidance coordinator, school headteachers, or district guidance coo ordinators or regional guidance coordinators.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics

Demographic characteristics	Frequency	Percent
Gender of respondents
Male	157	38.0
Female	256	62.0
Total	413	100.0
Tenure
1–5 years	87	21.1
6–10 years	146	35.4
11 years and above	180	43.6
Total	413	100.0
Stakeholder
School headteachers	123	29.8
School guidance coordinators	207	50.1
District guidance coordinators	83	20.1
Total	413	100.0

Source: Field survey (2022)

The second part of the results section on the hypotheses testing starts with the measurement of the structural model analysis, internal consistency measure, discriminant validity, and collinearity statistics. This was followed by the presentation of the main results for the path relationship for testing of the hypotheses.

6. Measurement of the structural model

PLS-SEM (Partial Least Square Structural Equation (PLS-SEM) algorithm for factor analysis (CFA) was used to determine the strength of the model by ensuring that only items loaded above the minimum threshold were used for the analysis. Thus, a comparison can be made between Figure 1, indicating all the items constituting the questionnaire and Figure 2 and 3, showing only items that loadedare loaded above the minimum threshold of 0.60.

Figure 2. Confirmatory factor analysis for all items.

Figure 3. Confirmatory factor analysis for selected items.

Source: Field survey (2022)

From Figure 2, out of the 21 items used to determine the attitude of stakeholders (that is ATH1-ATH4 for human resources, ATOC1-ATOC4 for an office complex, ATE1-ATE4 for equipment, ATM1-ATM3 for materials, and ATF1-ATF3 for finance, and ATT1-ATT3 for time), only 16 items loaded above the minimum threshold of 0.60 as presented in Figure 3. Thus, all four items on the attitude of stakeholders towards human resources (ATH1-ATH4), which loaded below the minimum threshold, were removed from the results shown in Figure 3.

Also, out of 11 items used to measure policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation on guidance services at the basic school level (that is P11-PI4 for policy implementation, ME1-ME7 for monitoring and evaluation) presented in Figure 2, only seven items loaded above the 0.60 minimum threshold and are presented in Figure 3. This suggests that PI1-PI4 were removed from the model because it failed to measure the policy implementation and monitoring variable of the study. In comparing Figure 2 to Figure 3, it is clear that all items for career success and perceived relevance were loaded above the minimum threshold, and, therefore, the same number of items can be seen in both figures.

7. Internal consistency of the model

The key indicators for determining the internal consistency of the PLS-SEM model were Cronbach’s Alpha, rho A, Composite Reliability, and Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and the results are presented in Table 2. The results in Table 2 reveal that Cronbach’s Alpha values obtained were between 0.893 and 0.969, and values for Composite Reliability ranged from 0.917 to 0.973, and that of rho_A were also between 0.897 and 0.976. All the values obtained for the first three indices (Cronbach’s Alpha, rho_A, Composite Reliability) were all above the minimum threshold of 0.70 suggested by Hair et al. (2017) and Segbenya et al. (2022). Additionally, the AVE values obtained were also between 0.568 and 0.780 above the 0.50 minimum threshold suggested by Hair et al. (2017). This means that the PLS-SEM model attained validity and reliability for the study.

Table 2. Construct reliability and validity

	Cronbach’s Alpha	rho_A	Composite Reliability	Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
ATT	0.951	0.952	0.956	0.568
CS	0.920	0.952	0.933	0.637
PIM	0.893	0.895	0.917	0.614
PR	0.969	0.976	0.973	0.780

Source: Field survey (2022)

8. Discriminant validity

The discriminant validity of the model was also checked with Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) suggested by Henseler et al. (2015) and the results are presented in Table 3. The interpretation of results in Table 3 is based on Henseler et al.’s (2015) criterion of recording zero (0) for diagonal loading on the same construct and less than 0.85 between different constructs. It is clear from Table 3 that all the HTMT values obtained recorded 0 for the diagonal loading and values below 0.85 maximum thresholds for the attainment of discriminant validity. Thus, the PLS-SEM model used for this study achieved discriminant validity.

Table 3. Discriminant validity using the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT)

	ATT	CS	PIM	PR
ATT	0
CS	0.330	0
PIM	0.750	0.325	0
PR	0.530	0.323	0.609	0

Source: Field survey (2022)

8.1. Multicollinearity

The presence of multicollinearity was checked using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) since it can affect the predictive power of the study variables. A maximum threshold of 3.30 suggested by Hair et al. (2017) was used. The results as presented in Table 4 indicate that all the inner values obtained for VIF were below the 3.30 threshold, suggesting that there was no presence of multicollinearity among the variables of the study, and the results can be used for further robust inferential statistical analysis.

Table 4. Inner VIF values

	ATT	CS	PIM	PR
ATT		2.145	1.379	1.000
CS
PIM		2.336
PR		1.559	1.379

Source: Field survey (2022)

9. Path analysis

The results presented in Figure 4 were analysed, using a bootstrapping sequence of 5000 samples to assess a structural model presentation, as suggested by Hair et al. (2017). The results presented in Figure 4, therefore, pave the way for the actual path analysis to test the hypotheses guiding this study.

Figure 4. Bootstrapping.

Source: Field survey (2022)

Results for testing of the hypotheses guiding the study are presented in Table 5. The results indicate that seven out of eight hypotheses guiding the study were supported because they attained statistical significance. That is, attitude towards guidance services at the basic school level (ATT) had a statistically significant relationship with career success (CS) at (β = 0.160, t = 2.130, p = 0.034) for hypothesis one. Also, there was a statistically significant relationship between the attitude of stakeholders towards guidance service (ATT) and policy implementation monitoring and evaluation of guidance services at the basic school level (PIM) at (β = 0.573, t = 15.854, p = 0.000) for hypothesis two. There was also a statistically significant relationship between attitude of stakeholders towards had statical (ATT) and perceived relevance of guidance service at the basic school level (PR) at (β = 0.524, t = 16.147, p = 0.000) for hypothesis three. Furthermore, perceived relevance of guidance services (PR) obtained a statistically significant relationship with career success at (CS) at (β = 0.188, t = 2.415, p = 0.016) for hypothesis five. There was a significant relationship between the perceived relevance of policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (PIM) at (β = 0.278, t = 8.144, p = 0.000) for hypothesis six. The last two significant relationships were based on the mediating role of perceived relevance (PR). That is, perceived relevance (PR) statistically and significantly mediated the relationship between attitude (ATT) towards guidance services at the basic level and career success of beneficiaries of guidance service at (β = 0.099, t = 2.203, p = 0.028) for hypothesis seven. Lastly, the perceived relevance of guidance service (PR) again significantly mediated the relationship between the attitude of stakeholders (ATT) and policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (PIM) at (β = 0.146, t = 7.154, p = 0.000) for hypothesis eight.

Table 5. Path coefficients

	R Square						R Square Adjusted
CS	0.150						0.144
PIM	0.572						0.570
PR	0.275						0.273
								Confidence Intervals
	Original Sample (O)	Sample Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (STDEV)		T Statistics(|O/STDEV|)	P Values		2.5%	97.5%	F Square
1.ATT -> CS	0.160	0.160	0.075		2.130	0.034		0.306	0.016	0.014
2. ATT -> PIM	0.573	0.573	0.036		15.854	0.000		0.505	0.642	0.556
3. ATT -> PR	0.524	0.523	0.032		16.147	0.000		0.460	0.586	0.379
4. PIM -> CS	0.104	0.108	0.076		1.358	0.175		0.253	0.040	0.005
5. PR -> CS	0.188	0.188	0.078		2.415	0.016		0.339	0.038	0.027
6. PR -> PIM	0.278	0.278	0.034		8.144	0.000		0.212	0.345	0.131
7.ATT -> PR -> CS	0.099	0.100	0.045		2.203	0.028		0.192	0.018
8. ATT -> PR -> PIM	0.146	0.145	0.020		7.154	0.000		0.106	0.185

Source: Field survey (2022)

Despite the model attaining statistical significance for seven hypotheses, one hypothesis was not supported due to non-statistical significance. It was policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (PIM) that attained a non-significant relationship with career success (CS) at (β = 0.104, t = 1.358, p = 0.175) for hypothesis five. The results in Table 5 also highlighted the variance in the model explained denoted by R² values supported by the adjusted R-squared. The results thus revealed that the PLS-SEM model explained about 0.150 variances in career success (CS), 0.572 variances in policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (PIM), and 0.275 in perceived relevance (PR) among stakeholders.

It is important to note that the effect sizes obtained for each of the significant paths reported in the model were based on Cohen’s (1988) suggestion that an effect size of 0.010 to 0.401 was acceptable. The unidimensional nature of the confidence intervals for the variables for all significant paths also revealed valid and reliable significance. Additionally, the significant results were further strengthened by the confidence level of 97.5%, with a minor error margin of only 2.5% indicated by the statistics obtained from the upper and lower boundaries, respectively.

10. Importance performance map analysis (IPMA)

In order to determine which factors of the study were more important and which of them performed creditably, PLS Importance Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) was conducted, and the results are presented in Table 6. The results in Table 6 revealed that in terms of performance, perceived relevance (PR) was rated higher than the rest of the factors, with a value of 63.039. Meanwhile, perceived relevance was not the most important variable for policy formulation. In Table 6, the most important variable or factor for policy decisions was the attitude of stakeholders (ATT) since it recorded the highest importance value of 0.334 above the values obtained for other factors.

Table 6. Importance-performance map

	Importance	Performances
ATT	0.334	23.904
PIM	0.104	27.772
PR	0.217	63.039

Source: Field survey (2022)

11. Graphical representation of the PLS IPMA path results

Figure 5 presents the graphical representation of the IPMA results. According to Segbenya et al. (2022), the R2 values of the endogenous latent variables revealed in the PLS path model are different from the performance values of each latent variable of the IPMA. The IPMA results highlighted the non-standardized and remembered outside weights of the measurement models (formative and reflective), not the standardised outer loading or weights, the authors further indicated. Thus, the beta values reported in Figure 5 as seen in the outer model revealed the relevance of each item to the construct and not the loading. Additionally, the inner values reported in Figure 5 also revealed the performance values of the individual construct in relation to the endogenous variable and not the total variance explained.

Figure 5. IPMA graphical presentation.

Source: Field survey (2022)

12. Predictive relevance of the model (Q²)

The Stone-Geisser Q² was used to test for the model’s predictive relevance. This was determined by omitting some part of the data matrix, estimating the model and then predicting the omitted part using the estimates (Hair et al., 2017). The Henseler et al. (2015) criteria of Q² values criteria, 0.02 < Q² < 0.15 (weak effect), 0.15 < Q² < 0.36 (moderate effect), and Q² > 0.35 (strong effect), was used as a rule of thumb. Thus, the results in Table 7 revealed that all the exogenous variables were able to predict the model substantially. That is, the Q² of the exogenous variables was 0.523 for attitude, 0.529 for career success, 0.482 for policy implementation and monitoring, and 0.716 for perceived relevance.

Table 7. Predictive relevance (Q²)

	SSO	SSE	Q^2 (=1-SSE/SSO)
ATT	7021.000	3347.271	0.523
CS	3304.000	1556.059	0.529
PIM	2891.000	1497.159	0.482
PR	4130.000	1174.675	0.716

Source: Field survey (2022)

Apart from the statistical significance of the variables of the study established, the study went further to determine how stakeholders’ categories influenced the appreciation of the variables of the study. This is because this study assumes that the role prescription by the category of stakeholders could influence how the variables of the study are appreciated. For this reason, a One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted, and the results are presented in Table 8. The results revealed that school head teachers perceived three of the variables of the study as higher than their other counterparts. That is, school head teachers rated measurement and evaluation (M = 2.1568, SD = .63399), perceived relevance (M = 3.2317, SD = .72319), and attitude (M = 1.9939, SD = .68407). Also, the results revealed that school guidance coordinators perceived policy implementation (M = 3.0906, SD = .68484) higher than all the remaining counterparts. Lastly, it can also be seen that the district guidance coordinator also perceived the career success variable (M = 3.2515, SD = .32284) higher than the two other counterparts. Despite the differences in relevance attached to the variables of the study depending on the category/role of stakeholders, it can also be seen that there was a statistically significant role/category for stakeholders and policy implementation (F = 111.041, Sig = .000); monitoring and evaluation (F = 35.407, Sig. = .000); perceived relevance (F = 19.562, Sig = .000); career success (F = 4.708, Sig = .010), and attitude (F = 16.729, Sig = .000). Thus, the role of stakeholders was found to have influenced how the variables of the study were perceived.

Table 8. Differences in perception of factors of the study based on roles/category of stakeholders

Variables	Category/role of Stakeholders	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error	95% Confidence Interval for Mean		F	Sig
						Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Policy Implementation	School Headteacher	123	2.9573	.57234	.05161	2.8552	3.0595	111.041	.000
	School Guidance Coordinator	207	3.0906	.68484	.04760	2.9967	3.1844
	District Guidance Coordinator	83	1.7048	1.01524	.11144	1.4831	1.9265
	Total	413	2.7724	.90957	.04476	2.6844	2.8604
Monitoring and Evaluation	School Headteacher	123	2.1568	.63399	.05717	2.0436	2.2700	35.407	.000
	School Guidance Coordinator	207	1.8427	.66389	.04614	1.7517	1.9336
	District Guidance Coordinator	83	1.3769	.65030	.07138	1.2349	1.5189
	Total	413	1.8426	.70478	.03468	1.7744	1.9108
Perceive Relevance	School Headteacher	123	3.2317	.72319	.06521	3.1026	3.3608	19.562	.000
	School Guidance Coordinator	207	2.8812	1.01258	.07038	2.7424	3.0199
	District Guidance Coordinator	83	2.4410	.78725	.08641	2.2691	2.6129
	Total	413	2.8971	.93078	.04580	2.8071	2.9871
Career Success	School Headteacher	123	3.0396	.56046	.05054	2.9396	3.1397	4.708	.010
	School Guidance Coordinator	207	3.1902	.57925	.04026	3.1108	3.2696
	District Guidance Coordinator	83	3.2515	.32284	.03544	3.1810	3.3220
	Total	413	3.1577	.53665	.02641	3.1058	3.2096
ATTITUDE	School Headteacher	123	1.9939	.68407	.06168	1.8718	2.1160	16.729	.000
	School Guidance Coordinator	207	1.7676	.64952	.04514	1.6786	1.8566
	District Guidance Coordinator	83	1.4504	.65758	.07218	1.3068	1.5940
	Total	413	1.7713	.68638	.03377	1.7049	1.8377

Source: Field survey (2023)

13. Discussion of the results

The results of the first hypothesis of the study showed that there was a significant relationship between the attitude of stakeholders towards guidance service and career success. The results mean that a percentage increase in the positive attitude of stakeholders towards guidance services at the basic school level will result in the same positive increase in the career success of beneficiaries of guidance services. The reverse is also true, that is, the career success of beneficiaries of guidance services at the basic school level is highly dependent on stakeholders’ attitudes towards financing, time allocation, logistics provisions, and office complex provision. It can, therefore, be inferred from the results and analysis that failure to provide the needed resources (negative attitude) on the part of the stakeholders will negatively affect career selection and progression and, ultimately, the career success of beneficiaries. The findings of this study corroborated Kundu et al. (2021) who established in their study that the attitude of stakeholders influences the success of delivering guidance services and, by extension, career success.

The attitude of stakeholders was not only found to significantly relate to career success but also to policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. This means that the right attitude towards guidance services is needed to ensure that the right policies are implemented, monitored, and evaluated. This means that without the right attitude of stakeholders, policies on guidance services will remain only in the books and will never be translated into actions. The results further suggest that the right attitude is needed towards allocating resources for implementing policies and evaluating the same for impact and policy modification. It can, therefore, be stated that policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of guidance services in Ghana at the basic school level could remain ineffective as long as the right attitude towards materials, time, and office complex are not in place or lacking. Thus, the assertion of Pedroso et al. (2022) that policies will remain ineffective unless the right attitude and resources are provided to translate them into action.

Also, the attitude of stakeholders had a significant relationship with the perceived relevance of guidance services among stakeholders. The results suggest that the right attitude for guidance services at the basic school level is highly influenced by the perception of the relevance of guidance services. The negative attitudes connote low perception of the relevance of guidance services and positive attitudes on the part of the stakeholders suggest high or positive perception or relevance of guidance services at the basic school level. Thus, stakeholders’ decision to commit resources to guidance services at the basic school level depends on the importance of guidance services.

Another significant finding of this study was the relationship between perceived relevance and career success. This means that any percentage increase in the level of perception of the relevance of guidance services will result in the same percentage increase in career success. It stands to reason that since attitude is related to perceived relevance (hypothesis three) and perceived relevance is related to career success (hypothesis five), then perceived relevance has the predictive power in terms of influencing or mediating the relationship between attitude and career success (hypothesis seven). The perceived relevance of guidance services at the basic school level had both direct and indirect effects on career success and the relationship between attitude and career success, respectively. Stakeholders' quest to enhance the linkages between career success and guidance services at the basic school level can be achieved when the key stakeholders put on the right attitude and positively perceive the relevance of the guidance services. Therefore, the desire of Ghana Education Service’s desire to achieve the targets for introducing guidance services at the basic school level for the past 66 years is highly dependent on the right attitude and positive perception of the relevance of guidance services (Arfasa & Weldmeskel, 2020).

The last significant relationship worthy of further explanations is between perceived relevance and policy implementation and evaluation (hypothesis six). The results mean that policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of guidance services are influenced by how relevant stakeholders perceive them to be. Ultimately, therefore, until stakeholders perceive guidance services as very important, commitment to policy implementation and evaluation of guidance services will suffer. Furthermore, perceived relevance also mediated the relationship between attitude and policy implementation on guidance services. That is, perceived relevance had both direct and indirect relationships with policy implementation on guidance services at the basic school level in Ghana. The results suggest that the government of Ghana can increase commitment to policy implementation on guidance services in the basic school by influencing positive perception levels among stakeholders.

The findings that the role played by stakeholders or stakeholders category had a significant influence on the variables of the study can also be further explained. It is important to note that the role of basic school head teachers influenced how they perceived attitude towards guidance service delivery. Headteachers’ roles for guidance service at their various schools include the appointment of guidance coordinators among available teaching staff in their respective schools. Additionally, the head teachers are also responsible for the provision of material resources, including equipment, finance, logistics, and office for guidance services, among others. Headteachers also monitor and evaluate the performance of school guidance coordinators. These roles could have been responsible for why head teachers perceived the attitude of stakeholders towards guidance service, measurement and evaluation, and perceived relevance of guidance services higher than other counterparts.

The role of basic school guidance coordinators also includes the provision of guidance services for basic school pupils. All policies on guidance services are also directly implemented by school guidance coordinators. After the implementation of policies and provision of guidance services, the school guidance coordinators also provide feedback or report on guidance services to the district guidance coordinators. These roles could have therefore explained why the school guidance coordinator perceived policy implementation on guidance services at the basic school level as higher than their counterparts.

The last stakeholder, the district guidance coordinator, also plays a significant role in ensuring successful guidance services in their districts. That is, district guidance coordinators are responsible for receiving reports from school guidance coordinators in the various basic school in the district. Thus, the role of the district guidance coordinators spans several school coordinators. District guidance coordinators are more exposed to the outcome of the guidance services, such as career success, as compared to school guidance coordinators due to the geographical coverage of their responsibilities. It is therefore not surprising that district guidance coordinators perceived career success higher than their counterparts.

14. Conclusion and recommendations

This study examined 66 years of guidance service delivery in Ghana and how stakeholders’ attitudes and perceived relevance influenced career success. It can be concluded that stakeholders’ attitudes towards guidance services at the basic school level are significantly related to policy implementation, perceived relevance, and career success. Additionally, perceived relevance or guidance services were also found to have a significant relationship with policy implementation, monitoring, and career success. Perceived relevance was also found to have a mediating influence on the relationship between attitude and career success and attitude and policy implementation on guidance services at the basic school level.

These conclusions call for specific actions to be taken by stakeholders on guidance services delivery at the basic school level. Thus, it is recommended that the government of Ghana, through Ghana Education Service, should empower all guidance services providers at the basic schools for effective guidance service delivery. Guidance service providers should be provided with office allocation, logistics, special allowance or remuneration, and dedicated time for guidance services at the basic school level.

It is also recommended that school heads embark on sensitisation campaigns for both beneficiaries and their parents/Guidance on the importance of guidance services for career success through workshops, open days, career fairs, and inter and intra-stakeholders school level. Effective implementation and monitoring of guidance services at the basic school level is also recommended. This is needed to ensure a continuous supply of resources and the need to review policies on guidance services at the basic school level.

15. Theoretical implications

The findings of this study have several theoretical implications for guidance services in basic schools in Ghana. The findings of this study have some implications for Holland’s theory of vocational types, which was premised on the fact that satisfaction and achievement are highest when personality types are matched with the compatible work environment. The theoretical implication is that the general personality type and environmental factors considered for career satisfaction must be further interrogated. This is because the environmental factors found by this study could be categorised into two – controllable and uncontrollable environmental factors. Hence, environmental factors within reach of the individual (attitude of stakeholders) should be distinguished from exogenous environmental factors such as governmental, economic, and political decisions of higher stakeholders that influence resource allocation for effective delivery of guidance services at the basic school level. This study, therefore, just confirmed Holland’s two axioms – congruity between environmental factors and personality type. However, this study has contributed to the theory that environmental factors have different effect levels depending on whether the factor is endogenous (can be controlled by the individual) or exogenous (cannot be influenced by the individuals). So, the literature on congruity will now need to pay attention to the different propensity levels among the environmental factors on guidance services for informed career decisions.

16. Practical implications

Several practical implications can be adduced from the findings of this study for guidance services delivery in basic schools in Ghana. The first relates to the need for positive attitudes of stakeholders for effective delivery of guidance services at the basic school level. This calls for empowerment of guidance services providers in terms of resource allocation – office allocation for guidance services, supply of logistics such as printers, internet connectivity, special remuneration for guidance services, and dedicated time for guidance services on the teaching timetables at the basic school level.

Another practical implication of the findings of the study is the role of perceived relevance on the success of guidance services at the basic school level among stakeholders. Stakeholders will need to be sensitised on the importance of guidance services at the basic school level in Ghana. The sensitisation exercise will need to focus on guiding service providers, resource allocators, beneficiaries, and their parents/guidance. This could be provided through seminars, workshops, open days, career fairs, and inter- and intra-stakeholders’ engagement at national, regional, and school levels.

The last practical implication relates to policy implementation and monitoring of guidance services at the basic school level. Good policy on guidance services is important but could have no positive effect without effective implementation. Framers of guidance services could enhance effective implementation by encouraging a bottom-up approach to policy formulation to incorporate contributions of policy implementers to motivate them to implement policy on guidance services. The implementation also largely depends on the allocation of adequate resources and the commitment of both guidance service providers and beneficiaries at the basic school level. Meanwhile, the need for formal, systematic, and timely monitoring and review or evaluation of policies on guidance services is equally relevant in this regard.

17. Limitations and suggestions for further studies

This study was limited to only three stakeholders – basic school headteachers, school guidance coordinators, and district guidance coordinators perspectives on attitude; perceived relevance; policy implementation, monitoring, and evaluation; and career success. Further studies could consider the perspectives of key beneficiaries of guidance services at the basic schools who are pursuing various professions. Further studies can also consider a mixed method approach where both quantitative and qualitative data could be gathered.

List of abbreviation

Table

ATT: Attitude towards guidance services

PIM: Policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation

PR: Perceived relevance

CS: Career success

PLS-SEM: Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling

SEM: Structural Equation Modelling

VIF: Variance Inflated Factor

Availability of data and materials

The datasets for this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Ethical clearance

The ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board, University of Cape Coast. with the reference number ID(UCCIRB/EXT/2022/24).

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the Directorate of Research Innovation and Consultancy (DRIC) for sponsoring this research project, and the support received from Dr Bevell Brandford (DRIC Monitor), both of the University of Cape Coast.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This study was funded by the Directorate of Research Innovation and Consultancy, University of Cape Coast;University of Cape Coast, DRIC;

Notes on contributors

Moses Segbenya

Moses Segbenya is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Business Studies, College of Distance Education, University of Cape Coast (UCC). He is the Principal Investigator leading a team of five members (Dr Lydia Aframea Dankyi, Dr. Joyce Kwakyewaa Dankyi, Dr Paul Mensah Agyei, Dr Vincent Mensah Minadzi) for a sponsored research project from which this article has been carved. Moses Segbenya obtained his Ph.D. and postdoctoral degrees, respectively, from the University of Cape Coast and University of Kassel, Germany. He has published and reviewed for Scopus journals from reputable publishers like Emerald, Sage, Wiley, Taylor & Francis, and Springer. He has attended and presented papers at several local and international conferences including Mexico, Germany, South Africa, Egypt, and Kenya. His research interests include human resource management issues in distance education, working conditions, informal workers, and human resource information systems

Profile Picture Moses Segbenya.