Vocabulary learning beliefs and strategies of Afghan EFL undergraduate learners

Abstract

It is widely perceived that vocabulary learning is essential in second and foreign language acquisition. Vocabulary learning beliefs (VLB) and vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) are factors that affect both second language acquisition (SLA) and first language acquisition (FLA). This study investigated the vocabulary learning beliefs and vocabulary learning strategies of Afghan EFL undergraduate learners. The study used a random sampling design of a quantitative approach using a survey questionnaire. One hundred and twenty Afghan EFL learners from the English departments of three public universities in Afghanistan participated in the survey. Data were analysed through descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage). The results of the study indicated that Afghan EFL learners’ beliefs are positive about vocabulary learning. The participants believe that repetition and reading are the best ways used to remember the words, expressions, and collocations. The study also showed that the majority of the participants used activation strategies, dictionary strategies, and guessing strategies. More than half of learners use memory strategies and almost half of them use metacognitive strategies. On the contrary, less than half of learners use notes-taking strategies. The findings of the study are essential for English language teachers to teach learners about the use of vocabulary learning strategies. Also, the findings of the study can help those who are interested in the use of vocabulary learning strategies in the Afghan context.

Keywords:

• Vocabulary learning beliefs
• vocabulary learning strategies
• Afghan EFL learners
• vocabulary learning and instruction

Public interest statement

This study investigated the vocabulary learning beliefs and vocabulary learning strategies of Afghan EFL undergraduate learners. The results of the study indicated that Afghan EFL learners’ beliefs are positive about vocabulary learning. The participants believe that repetition and reading are the best ways used to remember the words, expressions, and collocations. The study also showed that the majority of the participants used activation strategies, dictionary strategies, and guessing strategies. The findings of the study will help English language teachers to teach learners about the use of vocabulary learning strategies effectively. Also, it will help those who are interested in the use of vocabulary learning strategies in the Afghan context.

1. Introduction

Vocabulary is widely considered as the most crucial component of a language in recent years. Many people showed interest in this part of the language. Instructors and researchers began to think about using vocabulary learning strategies for vocabulary learning. Vocabulary knowledge and knowing vocabulary are essential for being able to communicate with others. Besides the other components of a language, knowledge of vocabulary is a vital and central part of acquiring second and foreign languages. Similarly, learning the vocabulary of English as a second or foreign language has the same importance as the other languages’ vocabulary has. According to Subaşı (2014), nowadays, it is believed that if a person wants to learn English as a second or foreign language, he must acquire a huge amount of English vocabulary. In other words, without a sufficient understanding of vocabulary, students cannot understand others’ ideas and cannot convey their opinions as well.

According to Viera (2017), the current developments in second and foreign language acquisition emphasize that knowledge of vocabulary is also a fundamental requirement for non-native speakers as the grammar and pronunciation are. Similarly, the learners who have good knowledge of English language vocabulary will be successful users of English in every academic field. Their competence in grammar and pronunciation will not be significant without adequate knowledge of vocabulary, and their communication will not be useful as well. Vocabulary is an essential tool through which we can understand any language skills, as well as it helps to understand written and spoken texts. Moreover, vocabulary has a vital and significant role in four skills of a language such as listening, reading, speaking, and writing. Alqahtani (2015) states that it must be considered that vocabulary learning is one of the required parts of a language that plays a vital role in the four skills of a language.

The first thing that we should know about is the perception of vocabulary learning and vocabulary learning strategies of ELF learners. Goundar (2016) states that vocabulary learning strategies, which are a significant part of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), are used by learners as a tool, and they employ different strategies that they considered an effective way for vocabulary learning. Furthermore, Subaşı (2014) adds that learners want to use different vocabulary learning strategies based on their perception and pre-existing cognitive or social factors. Thus, vocabulary learning is a fundamental part of language teaching, and it is the responsibility of teachers to play a vital role in teaching and implementation of vocabulary learning strategies.

Much research has been conducted in the area of using vocabulary learning strategies in many countries in order to explore which of the vocabulary learning strategies are most frequently and which are the least frequently used by learners. In the case of Afghanistan, some research has been conducted regarding the use of vocabulary learning strategies in Afghan context. In addition, this study also aims to explore Afghan EFL learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning, as well as the study finds out some of the vocabulary learning strategies used by Afghan EFL undergraduate learners.

The present study aims to address the following research questions:

1. What are the beliefs of Afghan EFL undergraduate learners about vocabulary learning?

2. What are the vocabulary learning strategies used by Afghan EFL undergraduate learners?

2. Literature Review

2.1. The importance of vocabulary

Kartalmis et al. (2017) Words are the fundamental units and elements of languages. As the bricks are used for buildings, similarly, it is essential to have a strong vocabulary knowledge to construct competence for a well-built language. Thus, vocabulary learning also has a crucial role for the students to acquire a second or foreign language. Khalifa (2015) argues that the role of vocabulary is significant in the ability of the students. Students can develop their ideas and feel comfortable and confident when they use their vocabulary orally and in writing. Furthermore, English language proficiency depends on the vocabulary that second- and foreign-language learners—and even native speakers—have access to. Even while expanding one’s vocabulary is important, it can be difficult for English language learners who are not native speakers (Afzal, 2019).

In a variety of university-level courses involving language proficiency, linguistics, literature, and translation, students with poor vocabulary knowledge perform poorly academically. Vocabulary building continues to be an essential component of language learning that is necessary to master the abilities of any language, be it a first, second, or foreign language, in order for speakers to receive and produce language and engage with one another.

Scholars have mentioned in numerous research studies about the indispensable role of vocabulary in learning a language. Despite this, there is little attention to vocabulary learning. According to Aslampoor et al. (2022), along with grammar, punctuation, and other writing tools, a strong vocabulary is one of the most important ones. Vocabulary can help you express yourself clearly and effectively in written and verbal interactions. This helpful tool will enable you to select the most appropriate term for each task and avoid inexplicit words that leave your readers in the dark about your meaning. Moreover, the students’ lack of vocabulary knowledge is a major impediment to language learning. In other words, you need to know a limited vocabulary to establish better communication in your language class. The more the learners learn the vocabulary, the more interactive the learners become. As a result, teaching techniques and strategies help both teachers and learners engage in better teaching and learning process (Akramy, 2022).

2.2. Vocabulary learning strategies

Alias (2018) defines vocabulary as “vocabulary concerns not only simple words in all their aspects but also complex and compound words, as well as the meaningful units of language.” Thus, vocabulary learning strategies are defined as “special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to comprehend, learn, or retain information (O’malley et al., 1990, .1). Vocabulary learning strategies play a crucial role in strengthening any language learners’ learning ability. According to Nation (2001), vocabulary learning strategies enable learners to do learning on their own. He believes that a large amount of vocabulary can be learned by using vocabulary learning strategies. Al-Bidawi (2018) and Bahanshal (2015) states that vocabulary learning strategies are considered as a tool that is used by learners to construct the knowledge of individuals to find out the meaning of new words and keep them in their long-term memory. Kafipour and Naveh (2011) stated that using vocabulary learning strategies is very significant in vocabulary learning, which depends on the efforts of learners. Researchers have specified many vocabulary learning strategies used by the learners. Vocabulary learning strategies are a subdivision of language learning strategies that have gotten much attention in the late of seventies.

Schmitt (1997) declared that learners are widely motivated to employ basic vocabulary learning strategies. It makes vocabulary learning strategy guidance a significant part of a foreign language or second language learning. Hadi (2017) explains that vocabulary is essential to English language teaching because, without sufficient vocabulary, learners cannot understand others’ ideas as well as they cannot express their ideas. Lexis is the basis of language, specifically for those students who want to develop better fluency and expression in English. It is required for them to learn more productive vocabulary knowledge as well as develop their vocabulary learning strategies. English learners always deal with dictionaries, not grammar books, so teaching vocabulary can help them understand others’ ideas and communicate with others in English in a very successful way.

According to Bahanshal (2015), many researchers believe that acquiring of foreign language depends on learning of a wide range of vocabulary of that language, and vocabulary is one of the key components of that language skills: reading, writing, and speaking. The learners will have problems in any skill if they do not understand adequate vocabulary items. Naeimi and Foo (2014) argue that vocabulary learning strategies make easier vocabulary learning. For the efficient language learning process, training is required to apply vocabulary learning strategies. Teaching vocabulary learning strategies will enable learners to learn the target language vocabulary efficiently and manage their learning. Visual aids are yet another beneficial aspect of language instruction. Visual aids are an effective method for explicitly teaching vocabulary to students. In addition to visual aids as a successful vocabulary teaching method, flashcards are also a great tool for learning new words.

2.3. Classification of vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) as the main variable of the current study are a component of language learning strategies that have received much attention since the late seventies. In other words, vocabulary learning strategies are a part of language learning strategies, which in turn are a part of general learning strategies (Kafipour & Naveh, 2011; Nation, 2001), or VLSs are a subdivision of language learning strategies that have gotten much attention in the late seventies.

Siriwan (2007) explains that the classification systems of vocabulary learning strategies that have been identified in different contexts by different scholars. Rubin and Thompson (1994) introduced three main categories of vocabulary learning strategies with sub-categories, such as Direct approach, Use Mnemonics, and Indirect Approach. Stoffer (1995) developed a questionnaire that comprised 53 items on the vocabulary learning strategies inventory and designed to measure specifically vocabulary learning strategies. Lawson and Hogben (1996) classified vocabulary learning strategies based on the information obtained through the think-aloud procedure and interviews provided by 15 university students learning Italian in Australia. The individual vocabulary learning strategies were classified under four different categories: repetition, word feature analysis, simple elaboration, and complex elaboration.

Another taxonomy that has been developed by Schmitt (1997) is a taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies based on extensive language learning strategies’ taxonomy organized by O’malley’s et al. (1990). It includes memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social categories. The following is the strategies inventory offered by Schmitt (1997). Moreover, Letchumanan et al. (2016) explain that Schmitt then added determination of meaning strategies, and he classified vocabulary learning strategies into two major groups: strategies for the discovery of new word meaning, and strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered. Letchumanan et al. additionally explain three more classifications of vocabulary learning strategies, namely, Oxford (1990), O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and Gu and Johnson (1996). Oxford (1990) has divided vocabulary learning strategies into two categories, direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies include memory, cognitive, and compensation, whereas indirect strategies include metacognitive, affective, and social. Another classification is O’Malley and Chamot (1990) that classify learning strategies into three groups: metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies. The third classification is Gu and Johnson (1996) classification. Siriwan (2007) has stated that Gu and Johnson (1996) has created a significant list of EFL vocabulary learning strategies employed by advanced Chinese learners.

In the Afghan context, students not only acquire vocabulary by using specific strategies but also use other different techniques. Akramy et. al, (2022) carried out research in the Afghan context. The finding of the study revealed that the majority of participants used various games in their classrooms. They held the opinion that games not only encouraged pupils to participate in class activities but also assisted passive learners in becoming active. Afghan teachers also embraced the use of visual aids as a vocabulary teaching method. They believed that visual aids such as photographs, sketches, flashcards, and other materials could facilitate effective teaching and learning. The current study attempts to investigate vocabulary learning beliefs and strategies that are used by Afghan tertiary-level EFL learners. Therefore, this study is based on the Classification of Gu and Johnson (1996) division of vocabulary learning strategies mentioned above. For this research study, we adopted all seven parts as shown below.

Beliefs about vocabulary learning

Metacognitive strategies

Guessing strategies

Dictionary strategie

Notes-taking strategies

Memory strategies (rehearsal and encoding)

Activation strategies

2.3.1. Beliefs about vocabulary learning

Amiryousefi (2015) explains that Beliefs/perceptions are also a significant part of the learning process. Beliefs are important because behavior is essential, and your behavior depends on your beliefs. Beliefs of both teachers and students affect their decisions, actions, teaching, and learning about different aspects of language learning.

2.3.2. Metacognitive strategies

Metacognitive strategies are strategies related to processes involved in monitoring, decision-making, and evaluation of one’s progress (Schmitt, 1997). Letchumanan et al. (2016) stated that through metacognitive strategies, learners can improve access to input and make the decision to study the best methods. Entesari and Zohrabi (2016) stated that metacognitive strategies comprise selective attention and self-initiation strategies. They believe that selective attention strategies are employed by foreign and second language learners in order to know which words are significant for them to learn also important for sufficient comprehension of a passage. Learners who employ self-direction strategies use a range of techniques to make the meaning of vocabulary items clear.

2.3.3. Guessing strategies

According to Bai (2018), guessing strategies belong to cognitive strategies. Many subjects guess the meaning of a word by word formation. Most of the subjects guess the meanings of the word from context. Less of the subjects guess the meaning of a word from the background information. Knowing all words’ meanings are impossible for the students in the process of reading. When they are facing a new word, and they keep using a dictionary, which takes them a valuable amount of time. Therefore, the students can learn the meaning of a word independently rather than cooperate with others, and they may find the meaning of an unknown word by using the guessing strategies.

2.3.4. Dictionary strategies

Panduangkaew (2018) argues that dictionary use is more popular than ever before because of the probability, quickness, and easy access to it. Students prefer too much using an online dictionary rather than a heavy thick printed dictionary. Therefore, fast access to online sources can discover the meaning of the target words at high speed that is resulting in great satisfaction in choosing this strategy for EFL learners. Bai (2018) stated that dictionary use strategies also belong to the cognitive strategies. They are the most frequently used strategies. Most of the subjects often refer to the dictionary. Many students look up the word and pay attention to phrases or set expressions that go with the word. Most of the subjects look up new words they encounter for meaning as well as they look up some learned words to confirm the knowledge about them and to be used accurately.

2.3.5. Notes-taking strategies

By using notes-taking strategies in class, learners can create their own personal structure for newly learned words, and they will be able to come up with the chance for additional exposure during a review. Learners can use specific vocabulary sections in their textbooks to assist them in studying target words (Khair, 2017).

2.3.6. Memory strategies

According to Entesari and Zohrabi (2016), memory strategies are classified into two categories, which are rehearsal and encoding categories. The examples of rehearsal categories are word lists and repetition. Association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding, as well as word structure (i.e., analyzation of words in terms of the prefix, stems, and suffixes), are included in encoding categories. Moreover, memory strategies are often known as mnemonics that deal with the connection between the new words learning and the pre-existing knowledge using some form of imagery or grouping for better retrieval of the words. And using physical actions can also help to recall the words (Schmitt, 1997).

2.3.7. Activation strategies

When learners use their newly learned words in their sentences and try to practice it as much as possible, or the learners use their new words in real or imaginary situations, these are called using the activation strategies (Gu, 2018). According to Yang and Liu (2014), for using activation strategies, the persons are instructed to create their sentences by using a new word. Also, they are required to practice using the new word in the learning task or assignment either in other courses or in an intensive English course as well as practice using the new word in daily life.

3. Methodology

3.1. Design

This study has followed a quantitative research design and more specifically the survey method because our purpose was to select reliable numerical data in a short period. Eyisi (2016) has stated that one of the advantages of quantitative research is that it saves time and resources, something essential in the present work. The data were collected and analyzed regarding the beliefs about vocabulary learning and some of the vocabulary learning strategies used by undergraduate EFL learners.

3.2. Participants

This study employed random sampling. The participants for this study are 120 (aged 18–26) tertiary-level EFL learners that are selected from Departments of English in three Afghan public universities. The repondents filled out the questionnaire, and they submitted it online. The data collection took 2 months (November–December 2020). Generally, quantitative researchers do not collect data from the entire population. Therefore, selecting a sample is necessary if the population of interest is large or scattered. Creswell (2012) has stated that a sample is a small group in the population that can be studied by the researcher also can generalize the findings from the research sample to the population as a whole. Table 1 below shows the participants’ demographics.

Table 1. Participants’ demographics

Gender	Frequency	Percent
Male	100	83.3
Female	20	16.7
Age
19–20	16	13.3
21–22	46	38.3
23–24	38	31.7
25–26	5	4.2
>26	15	12.5
Year of experience learning English
0–3	14	11.7
4–6	47	39.2
7–8	35	29.2
9–10	18	15.0
>10	6	5.0

3.3. Instrument

A research instrument consisting of 62-items Likert-scale survey questionnaire was utilized in this study in search of the answers to the two key research questions. The questionnaire was adopted from Peter Yongqi Gu (2018). Each item contains a 5-point scale ranging from (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) neutral, (4) disagree, and (5) strongly disagree. The questionnaire has seven parts. The first part of the questionnaire is beliefs about vocabulary learning that contains 1–10 items. The second part is metacognitive strategies and contains from 11 to 17 items. The third part is guessing strategies and contains from 18 to 24 items. The fourth part is dictionary strategies, which have 25–31 items. The fifth part is notes-taking strategies and contains from 32 to 37 items. The sixth part is memory strategies and contains from 38 to 58 items. The last part is activation strategies and contains from 59 to 62 items.

3.4. Reliability

As mentioned before about the questionnaire that it was adopted from Peter Yongqi Gu (2018). He has updated and validated it. Furthermore, Yongqi stated that “Cronbach’s alpha for each strategy was obtained to collect evidence for the internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire. Table 2 indicates that VLQ6.4 is a largely reliable instrument. Only one of the 15 strategies, that is, visual repetition, had an alpha of .638. The remaining strategies were all above .70. In fact, the overwhelming majority of them were above .80.”

Table 2. Reliability statistics

Dimensions	Categories	Strategies	Number of items	Apha
Metacognitive	Beliefs about vocabulary	Words should be memorized	6	.821
	learning	Words should be learned through use	4	.813
	Metacognitive regulation	Selective attention	3	.627
		Self-initiation	4	.820
Guessing	Inferencing	Guessing strategies	7	.884
	Using dictionary	Dictionary strategies	7	.816
	Taking notes	Choosing which word to put	3	.851
Memory strategies	Rehearsal	Use of word lists	3	.807
		Oral repetition	3	.735
		Visual repetition	3	.638
	Encoding	Visual encoding	3	.833
		Auditory encoding	3	.850
		Use of word-structure	3	.732
		Contextual encoding	3	.874
Activation		Activation	4	.874

3.5. Procedure

The survey questionnaire for this study was created in the Google Forms, which is an online generator tool through which we collect a variety of data quickly as well as we can survey right in our mobile or web browser where no special software required. The questionnaire comprised seven areas relating vocabulary learning namely (a) beliefs about vocabulary learning, (b) metacognitive strategies, (c) guessing strategies, (d) dictionary strategies, (e) notes-taking strategies, (f) memory strategies, and (g) activation strategies. Then, the link of the questionnaire was sent to 120 tertiary-level EFL learners of different English departments at Khost, Paktia, and Paktika, three different Afghan public universities, through whatsApp and emails. The participants selected one of the five points for each item in the questionnaire. Each item contains a 5-point scale ranging from (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) neutral, (4) disagree, and (5) strongly disagree.

3.6. Analysis

The present study concentrates on quantitative analysis in order to produce a more accurate description of vocabulary learning beliefs and strategies used by tertiary-level EFL learners. The data of this study were analyzed using descriptive statistics where the frequencies and comparison of frequencies are tabulated and converted to percentages. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) V.25 was used to analyze the data.

4. Findings and discussion

This study was conducted with an aim to explore Afghan tertiary-level EFL learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning. Similarly, the study also attempts to find out some vocabulary learning strategies used by Afghan EFL undergraduate learners

4.1. Afghan undergraduate EFL learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning

The first part of the questionnaire contained some items that explored the participants’ beliefs about vocabulary learning. Therefore, the first question aimed to explore Afghan undergraduate EFL learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning. The first section consists of 1–10 items that are divided into two parts, namely, 1–6 items related to “the word should be memorized” and items from 7–10 related to “words should be learned through use”. Data were analyzed through IBM SPSS Version (25) to calculate descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage).

The results for beliefs about vocabulary learning show that Afghan EFL learners’ beliefs are positive about vocabulary learning. Table 3 shows the percentage and frequency regarding the learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning.

Table 3. Beliefs about vocabulary learning

Word should be memorized
No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
1	Once the English words of all my native language meanings have been remembered, English is learned.	37 (30.8%)	67 (55.8%)	7 (5.8%)	9 (7.5%)	0 (0%)
2	The best way to remember words is to memorize word lists or dictionaries.	22 (18.3%)	43 (35.8%)	19 (15.8%)	29 (24.2%)	7 (5.8%)
3	The purpose of learning a word is to remember it.	51 (42.5%)	54 (45.0%)	7 (5.8%)	6 (5.0%)	2 (1.7%)
4	A good memory is all you need to learn a foreign language well.	39 (32.5%)	61 (50.8%)	11 (9.2%)	9 (7.5%)	0 (0%)
5	Repetition is the best way to remember words.	77 (64.2%)	38 (31.7%)	3 (2.5%)	2 (1.7%)	0 (0%)
6	You can only learn a large vocabulary by memorizing a lot of words.	35 (29.2%)	62 (51.7%)	11 (9.2%)	12 (10.0)	0 (0%)
Word should be learned through use
No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
7	The meanings of a large amount of words can be picked up through reading.	40 (33.3%)	67 (55.8%)	11 (9.2%)	2 (1.7%)	0 (0%)
8	Learners should pay attention to expressions (e.g., pick up) and collocations (e.g., heavy rain; strong wind) that go with a word.	60 (50.0%)	48 (40.0%)	7 (5.8%)	5 (4.2%)	0 (0%)
9	Learners can learn vocabulary simply through reading a lot.	44 (36.7%)	52 (43.3%)	7 (5.8%)	8 (6.7%)	9 (7.5%)
10	The least a learner should know about a word is its spelling, pronunciation, meaning, and its basic usage.	68 (56.7%)	39 (32.5%)	0 (0%)	9 (7.5%)	4 (3.3%)

The first part of beliefs about vocabulary is “word should be memorized”, and this part indicates that words should be remembered and memorized from a list or dictionary by repetation. The results show that the percentage of agreement for each item was 80% or more except item (2), for which the agreement of the respondents was more than 50 %. It indicates that learners’ beliefs are positive about vocabulary learning. In Table 3, the findings for item 5 show that 95.9% of learners agreed that the best way was repetition to remember the words. Also, for item 3, 87.5% of participants agreed that learning a word means to remember it. Similarly, for item 1, 86.6 % of respondents agreed that English is learned when all English word’s meanings have been learned in the native language. Thus, for item 4, 83.3% of participants agreed that a good memory is that through which you learn a foreign language well as you need. Moreover, for item 6, 80.9% of participants agreed that they could learn a large vocabulary by memorizing a lot of words. For item 2, 54% learners agreed that memorizing word lists or dictionaries are the best to remember words, while 30% of participants disagreed.

The second part of beliefs about vocabulary learning is “word should be learned through use”. It means that learners should know about the spelling, pronunciation, as well as pay attention to expression and collocation. For item 8, 90% of the participants agreed that learners should pay attention to the expressions and collocations. Similarly, for item 10, the findings show that 89.2% of participants agreed that at least a learner should know about spelling, pronunciation, meaning, and basic usage of a word. Furthermore, for item 7, 89.1% of respondents agreed that through reading, they were able to know the meaning of a large amount of words. Moreover, for item 9, 80% of participants agreed that they could learn vocabulary simply through reading. Lastly, as it can be seen, the overall percentage of agreeing and strongly agreeing is 83.66%, which clearly explored that Afghan EFL learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning are positive.

4.2. Vocabulary learning strategies used by Afghan EFL undergraduate learners

The second research question of this study aimed to find out some of the vocabulary learning strategies used by Afghan EFL undergraduate learners. Therefore, for this purpose, the second part of the questionnaire was used. This part of the questionnaire consisted of six sections regarding the use of vocabulary learning strategies. The sections are based on (i) metacognitive strategies; (ii) guessing strategies; (iii) dictionary strategies; (iv) notes-taking strategies, (v) memory strategies, and (vi) activation strategies. Each section of the vocabulary learning strategies has a different number of items. Some of the sections are divided into a few more subsections, respectively.

Table 4 shows the second section of the questionnaire that starts with metacognitive strategies.

Table 4. Metacognitive strategies

No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
11	I know whether a new word is important in understanding a passage.	18 (15.0%)	80 (66.7%)	14 (11.7%)	7 (5.8%)	(0.8%)
12	I know which words are important for me to learn.	25 (20.8%)	66 (55.0%)	21 (17.5%)	8 (6.7%)	0 (0%)
13	When I meet a new word or phrase, I know clearly whether I need to remember it.	20 (16.7%)	41 (34.2%)	26 (21.7%)	24 (20.0%)	9 (7.5%)
14	Besides textbooks, I look for other readings that fall under my interest.	46 (38.3%)	64 (53.3%)	6 (5.0%)	3 (2.5%)	1 (0.8%)
15	I wouldn’t learn what my English teacher doesn’t tell me to learn. (Reversed value)	10 (8.3%)	16 (13.3%)	7 (5.8%)	63 (52.5%)	24 (20.0%)
16	I only focus on things that are directly related to examinations. (Reversed value)	6 (5.0%)	17 (14.2%)	11 (9.2%)	57 (47.5%)	29 (24.2%)
17	I wouldn’t care much about vocabulary items that my teacher does not explain in class. (Reversed value)	9 (7.5%)	16 (13.3%)	9 (7.5%)	52 (43.3%)	34 (28.3%)

Metacognitive strategies are employed by learners in order to know which words are significant for them to learn and which words are important for sufficient comprehension of a passage. Table 4 shows that for item 14, majority of the participants 91.6% agreed that they do not only look for textbooks but also look for other readings that they are interested in. Also, for item 11, the findings show that 81.7% of respondents agreed that they know about a new word, whether it is important or not in understanding a passage. Thus, for item 12, it can be seen that 75.8% of learners agreed that they know which words are important for them to be learned. For item 13, Almost half of the participants 50.9% that they know clearly whether they need to understand the new word or phrase. Thus, the results showed that some of the respondents were neutral, and some of them disagreed and strongly disagreed. On the contrary, for item 15, more than half of the respondents 72.5% disagreed that they would not learn what their English teacher does not suggest to them to learn (reversed value). Thus, for item 16, 71.7% of participants disagreed that they only focus on things that are relevant to the examinations (reversed value). Besides, for item 17, it can be seen that 71.6% of participants disagreed that they would not pay attention to the vocabulary items that are not explained in a class by their teacher (Reversed value). In short, the overall percentage for both strongly agree and agree was 51.66% that showed that almost more than half of the participants use metacognitive strategies.

Table 5 shows the guessing strategies. Guessing strategies are used to infer the meaning of unknown words from the surrounding words in a passage. The findings show that majority of learners use guessing strategies.

Table 5. Guessing strategies

No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
18	I make use of the logical development in the context (e.g., cause and effect) when guessing the meaning of a word.	41 (34.2%)	67 (55.8%)	9 (7.5%)	3 (2.5%)	0 (0%)
19	I use common sense and knowledge of the world when guessing the meaning of a word.	50 (41.7%)	58 (48.3%)	7 (5.8%)	5 (4.2%)	0 (0%)
20	I check my guessed meaning in the paragraph or whole text to see if it fits in.	35 (29.2%)	64 (53.3%)	14 (11.7%)	7 (5.8%)	0 (0%)
21	When I don’t know a new word in reading, I use my background knowledge of the topic to guess the meaning of the new word.	38 (31.7%)	63 (52.5%)	6 (5.0%)	13 (10.8%)	0 (0%)
22	I look for explanations in the reading text that support my guess about the meaning of a word.	28 (23.3%)	78 (65.0%)	11 (9.2%)	1 (0.8%)	2 (1.7%)
23	I make use of the grammatical structure of a sentence when guessing the meaning of a new word.	23 (19.2%)	69 (57.5%)	13 (10.8%)	15 (12.5%)	0 (0%)
24	I make use of the part of speech of a new word when guessing its meaning.	50 (41.7%)	57 (47.5%)	9 (7.5%)	3 (2.5%)	1 (0.8%)

Guessing strategies are used to infer the meaning of unknown words from the surrounding words in a passage. Table 5, shows that for item 18, majority of the participants 90% agreed that when they guess the meaning of a word, in context, the use of logical development can be made by them, e.g., cause and effect. Similarly, for item 19, the same percentage of respondents 90% agreed that when they guess the meaning of a word, common sense and knowledge of the world can be used by them. Furthermore, for item 24, 89.2% of respondents agreed that they use parts of speech to guess the meaning of a new word. Also, for item 22, it can be seen that 88.3% of participants agreed that for supporting their guess about the meaning of a new word, they find an explanation in reading text. Similarly, for item 21, the findings show that 84.2% of respondents stated that when they are not able to find the meaning of a new word in reading, they use the background of the knowledge to guess the meaning. Thus, for item 20, 82.5% of participants agreed that they check their guessed meaning in a paragraph or whole text, whether the meaning fits in. For item 23, it can be seen that 76.7% of participants agreed that they guess the meaning of a new word; they use the grammatical structure of a sentence. Only a small number of participants, 12.5%, disagreed that they do not use the grammatical structure of a sentence to guess the meaning of a new word. The overall percentage for both strongly agree and agree showed that 85.82% of Afghan tertiary-level EFL learners used metacognitive strategies.

The fourth section of the questionnaire starts with dictionary strategies. The results for dictionary strategies show that the majority of learners use dictionary strategies. Table 6 shows the findings for dictionary strategies.

Table 6. Dictionary strategies

No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
25	When I see an unfamiliar word again and again, I look it up.	66 (55.0%)	48 (40.0%)	2 (1.7%)	4 (3.3%)	0 (0%)
26	When not knowing a word prevents me from understanding a whole sentence or even a whole paragraph, I look it up.	53 (44.2%)	43 (35.8%)	12 (10.0%)	8 (6.7%)	4 (3.3%)
27	I look up words that are important to the under-standing of the sentence or paragraph in which it appears.	60 (50.0%)	53 (44.2%)	4 (3.3%)	3 (2.5%)	0 (0%)
28	I pay attention to the examples when I look up a word in a dictionary.	64 (53.3%)	48 (40.0%)	4 (3.3%)	3 (2.5%)	1 (0.8%)
29	When I want to have some deeper knowledge about a word that I already know, I look it up.	53 (44.2%)	44 (36.7%)	4 (3.3%)	15 (12.5%)	4 (3.3%)
30	When I want to know more about the usage of a word that I know, I look it up.	57 (47.5%)	45 (37.5%)	12 (10.0%)	4 (3.3%)	2 (1.7%)
31	I check the dictionary when I want to find out the similarities and differences between the meanings of related words.	55 (45.8%)	54 (45.0%)	9 (7.5%)	1 (0.8%)	1 (0.8%)

Dictionary strategies are one of the effective vocabulary learning strategies in developing the learning processes. The learners use dictionary strategies when they see unfamiliar words. Table 6 makes it clear that for item 25, majority of participants 95% agreed that when they see an unfamiliar word repeatedly; they look it up. Thus, for item 27, 94.2% of participants agreed that they look important words up through which sentence or paragraph can be understood. The findings for item 28 shows that 93.3% of respondents agreed that when they look up a word in a dictionary, they pay attention to the examples as well. Furthermore, for item 31, it can be seen that 90.8% of respondents agreed that they use a dictionary to find out the similarities and differences between the meaning of related words. Also, for item 30, 85% of participants agreed that they look a word up to know more about its usage. Similarly, for item 29, the findings show that 80.9% of participants agreed that when they want to have more knowledge about a word they already know, they look it up. In the same way, for item 26, it can be seen that 80% of respondents agreed that they look a word up which prevents them from understanding complete sentence or complete paragraph. As it can be seen that the overall percentage of strongly agree and agree indicated that 88.45% of Afghan tertiary-level EFL learners used dictionary strategies.

The results for notes-taking strategies show that less than half of Afghan learners use note-taking strategies. Table 7 shows the findings for notes-taking strategies

Table 7. Notes-taking strategies

No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
32	I make a note when I think the meaning of the word I’m looking up is commonly used.	23 (19.2%)	35 (29.2%)	10 (8.3%)	46 (38.3%)	6 (5.0%)
33	I make a note when I think the word I’m looking up is related to my personal interest.	24 (20.0%)	36 (30.0%)	13 (10.8%)	32 (26.7%)	15 (12.5%)
34	I make a note when I see a useful expression or phrase.	35 (29.2%)	35 (29.2%)	7 (5.85%)	29 (24.2%)	14 (11.7%)
35	I write down the English explanations of the word I look up.	13 (10.8%)	45 (37.5%)	11 (9.2%)	32 (36.7%)	19 (15.8%)
36	I write down both the meaning in my native language and the English explanation of the word I look up.	19 (15.8%)	36 (30.0%)	13 (10,8%)	36 (30.0%)	16 (13.3%)
37	I note down examples showing the usages of the word I look up.	15 (12.5%)	32 (26.7%)	14 (11.7%)	42 (35.0%)	17 (14.2%)

In notes-taking strategies, the learners make a note when they are looking up for the meaning of a word, expression, and phrase as well as they make a note of examples showing the usage of word. Table 7, shows that for item 34, almost more than half 58.4% of participants agreed when they see useful phrase or expression, they make a note, while 35.9% of participants disagreed. Thus, for item 33, half of the respondents, 50% agreed that they make a note of word and look it up when the word is related to their personal interest. Similarly, for item 32, 48.4% of participants agreed that they make notes of words whose meaning is commonly used, but 43.3% of participants disagreed, and 8.3% were neutral. On the contrary, for item 36, it can be seen that 52.5% of participants disagreed when they look up a word, they write down their English explanation, while less than half of respondents 48.3% agreed. Furthermore, for item 36, less than half of participants, 45.8% agreed when they look up a word they write native language meaning and English explanation of the word, while 43.3% disagreed, and the rest of the respondents were neutral. For item 37, the findings showed that 49.2% of participants disagreed that they note down examples of the usage of the words when they look up a word, while 39.2% of respondents agreed, and rest of them were neutral. The overall percentage for strongly agree and agree showed that less than half of participants (48.32%) of Afghan tertiary-level EFL learners used notes-taking strategies.

The results for memory strategies show that more than half of the learners use memory strategies. Table 8 shows the findings for memory strategies.

Table 8. Memory strategies

(A) Rehearsal
No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
38	I go through my vocabulary list several times until I remember all the words on the list.	39 (32.5%)	61 (50.8%)	10 (8.3%)	9 (7.5%)	1 (0.8%)
39	I make vocabulary cards and take them with me wherever I go.	18 (15.0%)	32 (26.7%)	11 (9.2%)	42 (35.0%)	17 (14.2%)
40	I make regular reviews of new words I have memorized.	32 (26.7%)	77 (64.2%)	8 (6.7%)	3 (2.5%)	0 (0%)
41	When I try to remember a word, I say it aloud to myself.	38 (31.7%)	68 (56.7%)	7 (5.8%)	6 (5.0%)	1 (0.8%)
42	When I try to remember a word, I repeat its pronunciation in my mind.	60 (50.0%)	50 (41.7%)	3 (2.5%)	6 (5.0%)	1 (0.8%)
43	Repeating the sound of a new word to myself would be enough for me to remember the word.	14 (11.7%)	46 (38.3%)	9 (7.5%)	42 (35.0%)	9 (7.5%)
44	When I try to remember a word, I write it again and again.	39 (32.5%)	69 (57.5%)	7 (5.8%)	4 (3.3%)	1 (0.8%)
45	I memorize the spelling of a word letter by letter.	42 (35.0%)	41 (34.2%)	15 (12.5%)	16 (13.3%)	5 (4.2%)
46	I write both the new words and their translation in my native language again and again in order to remember them.	20 (16.7%)	30 (25.0%)	8 (6.7%)	40 (33.3%)	21 (17.5%)
(B) Encoding
No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
47	I act out some words in order to remember them better (e.g., jump).	17 (14.2%)	27 (22.5%)	13 (10.8%)	40 (33.3%)	23 (19.2%)
48	I create a picture in my mind to help me remember a new word.	28 (23.3%)	73 (60.8%)	8 (6.7%)	10 (8.3%)	1 (0.8%)
49	To help me remember a word, I try to “see” the spelling of the word in my mind.	28 (23.3%)	72 (60.0%)	13 (10.8%)	6 (5.0%)	1 (0.8%)
50	I put words that sound similar together in order to remember them.	11 (9.2%)	38 (31.7%)	17 (14.2%)	41 (34.2%)	13 (10.8%)
51	When words are spelled similarly, I remember them together.	14 (11.7%)	39 (32.5%)	17 (14.2%)	37 (30.8%)	13 (10.8%)
52	When I try to remember a new word, I link it to a sound-alike word that I know.	16 (13.3%)	44 (36.7%)	16 (13.3%)	42 (35.0%)	2 (1.7%)
53	When I learn new words, I pay attention to prefixes, roots, and suffixes (e.g., inter-nation-al).	41 (34.2%)	67 (55.8%)	6 (5.0%)	6 (5.0%)	0 (0%)
54	I intentionally study how English words are formed in order to remember more words.	39 (32.5%)	60 (50.0%)	15 (12.5%)	6 (5.0%)	0 (0%)
55	I memorize the commonly used roots and prefixes.	40 (33.3%)	53 (44.2%)	17 (14.2%)	10 (8.3%)	0 (0%)
56	When I try to remember a word, I also try to remember the sentence in which the word is used.	27 (22.5%)	63 (52.5%)	9 (7.5%)	18 (15.0%)	3 (2.5%)
57	I put words in set expressions or sentences in order to remember them.	17 (14.2%)	69 (57.5%)	20 (16.7%)	12 (10.0%)	2 (1.7%)
58	I remember a new word together with the context where the new word appears.	16 (13.3%)	32 (26.7%)	22 (18.3%)	34 (28.3%)	16 (13.3%)

The first part of memory strategies is rehearsal part. The examples of rehearsal categories are word lists and repetition of new words to be learned. In Table 8, the findings for item 42 shows that 91.7% of participants agreed when they remember a word, they repeat its pronunciation in their mind. Similarly, for item 40, 90.9% of participants agreed that they regularly review the word they have memorized. Also, for item 44, 90% of respondents agreed that they try to remember a word by writing it again and again. Furthermore, for item 41, 88.4% of participants agreed that they try to learn a word by saying it loudly. For item 38, the findings show that 83.3% of learners agreed that they repeat their vocabulary list several times until they remember all the words in the list. In addition, for item 45, 69.2% of participants agreed that they memorize the spelling of a word letter by letter. For item 46, half of the respondents 50.8% showed disagreement with writing of a new word and its translation in their native language again and again in order to memorize it. On the contrary, 41.7% of participants agreed. For item 43, half of the participants, 50% agreed that it would be enough for them to repeat the sound of the new word in order to remember it. Conversely, 42.5% of participants disagreed, and rest of the participants were neutral. The findings for item 39 showed that almost half of the participants 49.2% disagreed that they make vocabulary cards and take them wherever they go, while 41.7% of participants agreed, and rest of them were neutral.

The second part of memory strategies, is encoding. Association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding, as well as word structure (i.e., analyzation of words in terms of the prefix, stems, and suffixes), are included in encoding categories. Th findings for item 53 revealed that 90% of participants agreed when they learn new words, they pay attention to prefixes, roots, and suffixes as well. Similarly, for item 48, 84.1% of participants agreed when they remember a new word, they create a picture in their mind to help them remember it. Furthermore, for item 49, 83.3% of learners agreed that they see the spelling of the word in their mind in order to help them remember the new word. Also, for item 54, 82.5% of respondents agreed that they deliberately study how English words are formed in order to learn more words. For item 55, 77.5% of respondents agreed that they memorize the roots and prefixes, which are commonly used. Also, for item 56, the findings show that 75% of participants agreed when they remember a word, they also remember the sentence in which the word is used. Similarly, for item 57, 71.7% of participants agreed that they remember words by putting them in set expressions or sentences. On the other hand, for item 47, almost more than half 52.5% of participants disagreed that they act out words to remember them better (e.g., jump), while 36.7% of participants agreed, and the rest of the participants were neutral. For item 52, half of the participants, 50%, agreed that they link a new word to a sound similar to the word that they know, while 36.7% of participants disagreed, and the rest of the participants were neutral in this regard. Also, for item 50, it can be seen that 45% of participants disagreed that they put words that have the same sound to remember them, whereas 40.9% of participants agreed, and the rest of them were neutral. The findings for item 51 show that 44.2% of participants agreed that they remember words together when they are spelled similarly, but 41.6% of participants disagreed, and the rest of the respondents were neutral. For item 58, 41.6% of respondents disagreed that they remember a new word together with context, while less than half of the respondents 40% agreed that they remember word together with the context where the new word appears, and rest of the participants were neutral. In short, the overall percentage of memory strategies for strongly agree and agree showed that more than half of participants (67.72%) use memory strategies.

Activation strategies contain those strategies where the new words are actually used by the learners in different contexts. Table 9 shows the findings of activation strategies.

Table 9. Activation strategies

No	Statements	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
59	I make up my own sentences using the words I just learned.	48 (40.0%)	68 (56.7%)	2 (1.7%)	2 (1.7%)	0 (0%)
60	I try to use the newly learned words as much as possible in speech and writing.	53 (44.2%)	62 (51.7%)	5 (4.2%)	0 (0%)	0 (0%)
61	I try to use newly learned words in real situations.	54 (45.0%)	57 (47.5%)	8 (6.7%)	0 (0%)	1 (0.8%)
62	I try to use newly learned words in imaginary situations in my mind.	36 (30.0%)	61 (50.8%)	16 (13.3%)	5 (4.2%)	2 (1.7%)

The last section of the questionnaire was activation strategies. Activation strategies contain those strategies where the new words are actually used by the learners in different contexts. In Table 9 the findings for item 59 shows that 96.7% of participants agreed that they use the word they just learned in their own sentences. Similarly, for item 60, it can be seen that majority of the participants 95.9% agreed that they try to use the newly learned words in writing and speech as much as possible. Furthermore, for item 61, 92.5% of participants agreed that they try to use the new words they just learned in real situations. The findings for item 62 also revealed that 80.8% of participants agreed that they try to use the new words they have learned in imaginary situation in their minds. Lastly, the overall percentage for both strongly agree and agree show that 91.45% of participants use activation strategies.

5. Discussion

The objectives of this research are to investigate the vocabulary learning beliefs and some of the vocabulary learning strategies of Afghan EFL undergraduate learners. The data were collected through a survey questionnaire, and the findings of the data have been derived from the software SPSS Version 25. The frequencies and percentages have been calculated and tabulated in the sections earlier. The first research question for this study was to explore Afghan undergraduate EFL learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning. The overall percentage of agreeing for 10 items of beliefs about vocabulary learning is 83.66%, which shows that Afghan EFL learners have positive views about vocabulary learning, which were divided into two major sections, namely, “the word should be memorized” and “words should be learned through use”. Afghan EFL learners agreed that repetition is the best way to remember the words, and they believed that learning a word means to remember it. Similarly, they believed that English is learned when all English words’ meanings have been learned in a native language. They could learn a large vocabulary by memorizing a lot of words. Likewise, they believe that learners should pay attention to the expressions and collocations, and at least a learner should know about spelling, pronunciation, meaning, and basic usage of a word. Thus, many of them believe that through reading, they were able to know the meaning of a large amount of words. The results of this study regarding the beliefs about vocabulary learning were in agreement with the findings of many researchers such as Amiryousefi (2015) and Kulikova (2015), which indicate that both teachers and students expressed their agreement and they had positive views regarding beliefs about vocabulary learning. Also, the results of this study regarding beliefs about vocabulary learning were in line with the finding of Goundar (2016), which shows that most participants were very positive about the first and second parts of vocabulary learning beliefs, namely, “words should be memorized” and “words should be learned to use”. The participants of both research agreed that repetition was the best way to remember the words and they were able to expand their vocabulary through reading. Also, the participants stated that they were using the words they have already learned. In addition, they said that once they had learned the words, they recall the meaning that can help them in understanding the context.

The second research question for the current study was used to find out some of the vocabulary learning strategies used by Afghan EFL undergraduate learners. Based on the information presented in the previous section, the overall findings derived from the questionnaire for descriptive statistics showed that majority of Afghan EFL undergraduate learners use activation strategies, dictionary strategies, and guessing strategies. More than half of them use memory strategies, and almost half of them use metacognitive strategies. Less than half of Afghan EFL undergraduates use notes-taking strategies. Afghan EFL learners revealed more interest to use activation strategies. Because 91.45% of participants tend to use new words in different contexts, e.g., they make up their own sentences to use the new words they just learned. Thus, they use the new words they learned as much as possible in speech and writing, and they use them in real situations and imaginary situations.

In addition, the data revealed that there was a very small difference in percentage between activation and dictionary strategies. With regard to dictionary strategies, the findings of the study are in line with the results of the study carried out by Atifnigar et al. (2020) at Baghlan University. Their study also showed that the students use dictionary strategies at second level and most of the students check a dictionary for collocation patterns, grammatical patterns of terms and parts of the speech. The results of the current study also show that the dictionary strategies were the second mostly used strategies among Afghan EFL undergraduate learners. Almost 88.45% of participants agreed that when they see an unfamiliar word, they look it up. Also, they look up a word that prevents them from understanding the sentence or paragraph. They also pay attention to the examples of new words in a dictionary. When they want to have more profound knowledge about a word they already know, they look it up. Similarly, the current study showed that students check a dictionary for similarities and differences between the meaning of related words. Similarly, 85.82% of participants use guessing strategies. When they guess the meaning of a word in context, they use logical development as well as they use common sense and knowledge, e.g., cause and effect. Also, they use parts of speech to guess the meaning of a new word. Besides, they guess the meaning of a new word they find explanation in reading text and use background of knowledge.

The results of the current study regarding activation, dictionary, and guessing strategies were in line with the findings of Subaşı (2014) which shows that the participants most focused on guessing, dictionary , and activation strategies. The results suggest that learners employ a wide range of these strategies other than rote learning strategies. The findings of the study also show that majority of the students use activation strategies and they try to use the new words in writing and speaking. The results of the aforementioned study also show that they use the words in real situation. Also, they use the words in their own sentences and in imaginary situation in their minds. Similarly, regarding the guessing strategies, the results of the study show that the participants of the study also use common sense, background knowledge, and logical development, e.g., cause and effect. Besides if they cannot find a dictionary, they ask classmate.

With regard to metacognitive strategies and memory strategies, the findings of the current study are in line with Khair (2017), which shows that more than half of the students use metacognitive and memory strategies. Regarding metacognitive strategies, the learners of both studies agreed that they do not only look for textbooks but also look for other readings. Thus, they know which word is important for them to be learned and whether they need to understand the new word or phrase. Also, regarding memory strategies, the results of both studies show that the participants agreed that they regularly review the word they have memorized and remember a word by writing it again and again. Thus, they learn a word by saying it loudly as well as they repeat their vocabulary list several times until they remember all the words.

On the contrary, less than half 48.32% of Afghan EFL undergraduate learners use notes-taking strategies. Because majority of the students revealed that they do not make note for commonly used words and for words related to their personal interest. Also, they explored that they do not make a note for useful expression or phrase and explanation of the word. Thus, they do not make a note for the examples of the usage of the word they look up. The results of this study regarding notes-taking strategies were in line with the findings of Noor and Amir (2009), which indicates that the least used strategy discovered was note taking strategies. The participants of this study also agreed that they do not make a note for commonly used words, for expression of phrases, and for the examples of the word they look up. Figure 1 below shows the common strategies in percentages used by Afghan EFL learners.

Figure 1. Common strategies in percentages (%) used by afghan efl learners.

6. Conclusion

This study was conducted to explore Afghan undergraduate EFL learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning. The study also aimed to find out some of the vocabulary learning strategies used by Afghan EFL learners. The findings of the survey questionnaire are discussed. The results of the study indicated that Afghan EFL learners’ beliefs are positive about vocabulary learning. Also, the findings showed that majority of the learners use activation strategies, dictionary strategies, and guessing strategies. More than half of learners use memory and metacognitive strategies and less than half of learners use notes-taking strategies. Afghan EFL learners revealed more interest in using activation strategies because they would like to use new words in different contexts, e.g., they make up their own sentences to use the new words they just learned. Thus, they try to use the new words they learned as much as possible in speech and writing, and they try to use them in real situations and imaginary situations. Similarly, the findings showed that the dictionary strategies were the second mostly used strategies among Afghan EFL learners because the learners can use bilingual dictionaries on their smartphones through which they can find the meaning of a new word very fast. Besides, the majority of learners use guessing strategies. Because the learners think they can find the meaning of new words by guessing when they could not consult a dictionary. Notes-taking strategies were the least used strategies. Because the time for teaching and learning is very limited in the Afghan context. Therefore, the learners might not make a note for the newly learned words.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge the Faculty of Languages and Literature at Shaikh Zayed University for providing me the facilities and supports including space and technology for conducting this research work. I would also like to thank other professors for supporting me when collecting data for my research paper.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Additional information

Funding

The author has no funding to report.

Notes on contributors

Saifurrahman Rahmani

Saifurrahman Rahmani is an Assisstant Professor at the Department of English, Faculty of Languages and Literature, Khost Shaikh Zayed University, Khost Afghanistan, where he has been teaching since 2014. He obtained a M. Ed. in Teaching English as a Second Language from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and a B.A. in English Language and Literature from Nangarhar University, Afghanistan. He has supervised and guided more than 50 undergraduate students for completion their monographs. His research interests include teaching English as a second/foreign language, second language acquisition theories and strategies.