Exploring the synergy of digital competence and photo-driven reflection: A pilot study on reflective thinking skill development in business education

Abstract

While the significance of imparting reflective thinking skills to business undergraduates is widely acknowledged, the optimal approaches to attain this objective remain uncertain. Furthermore, there is a scarcity of empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of specific teaching initiatives aimed at achieving this goal. Therefore, firstly, this pilot study introduces a digital approach to developing reflective thinking skills. It builds upon the integration of using photographs to capture learning experiences, combined with written narratives within the context of constructing an e-portfolio. Secondly, responding to the need to validate technology’s role in developing reflective thinking skills, this pilot study utilised hierarchical linear regression to analyse survey responses from 41 business undergraduates. The aim was to test hypotheses related to the proposed initiative. The pilot study findings uncover that higher digital competencies in portfolio creation strengthen the link between the effectiveness of photo use for capturing learning experiences and undergraduates’ reflective thinking skill development.

Keywords:

• reflective thinking
• critical reflection
• visual thinking strategies
• e-portfolio
• photo-use
• business education
• Australia

1. Introduction

Teaching students to engage in reflective thinking and make reflective judgments about complex and challenging problems lies at the heart of higher education’s mission (Alt et al., 2022; Aydoğmuş & Şentürk, 2023; Calma & Davies, 2021; King & Kitchener, 1994). This crucial objective encompasses more than the mere accumulation of knowledge. It involves cultivating a deeper understanding and critical evaluation of information. This process of reflective thinking encourages learners to move beyond surface-level comprehension and delve into the underlying principles and assumptions that shape their understanding (Guo, 2022; Powell & Nayak, 2022). However, critics of reflective practices contend that student reflections often lack structure, lack the necessary academic rigour, and often resemble informal journal entries that summarise casual thoughts related to specific learning experiences (Carl & Strydom, 2017). They often amount to “routine analyses of successful aspects” (Bartlett, 2008, p. 2054), achieving only a moderate level of depth (Sung et al., 2009). Both prior research and the author’s own observations support the notion that while many students grasp the concept theoretically, they struggle to translate this understanding into practical application when tasked with critically reflecting on their own experiences (e.g., Bharuthram, 2018; Collin et al., 2013). This discrepancy could potentially arise from the lack of effective strategies for fostering critical reflection within the relevant courses (Ajayi, 2011; Davies & Calma, 2020). Particularly in business education research, the most effective methods for achieving the above objective remain unclear, and empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of targeted teaching initiatives is scarce (Davies & Calma, 2020; Guo, 2022; Wraae et al., 2021).

To address this limitation, the current study endeavours to propose a digital approach grounded in visual thinking strategies and constructivist principles within the context of teaching and learning. The study further aims to rigorously test a set of hypotheses to validate the foundational assumptions that underlie this proposed initiative. Documenting the outcomes of an initial teaching experiment named “Adobe Visualise,” implemented within a business capstone unit, this study introduces an innovative approach that merges digital tools, particularly photographs, with written narratives in an electronic portfolio (e-portfolio) constructed by utilising the Adobe Portfolio (Pf) application. This study contends that conventional report-based documentation tends to produce descriptions that are mechanistic, reductionist, and shallow, lacking a deeper exploration of learning experiences (Mcintosh et al., 2006). Utilising visual methods, including techniques like photo-elicitation, photo essays, and photo novels, represents dynamic approaches to learning. These methods promote higher-order cognitive skills, foster deeper engagement through identity formation and empathetic understanding, and enhance comprehension and conceptualisation of abstract ideas and relationships (Carroll & Smolović Jones, 2018; Stavraki & Anninou, 2023). Hence, this study highlights the potential of digital methods to synergistically cultivate critical reflection skills among undergraduate students. In doing so, the study responds to the need for novel avenues to develop critical reflection skills within higher education (e.g., Glaister & Gold, 2022; Marshall et al., 2022).

The timing of this approach is pertinent, echoing the assertion of Melbourne University researchers Davies and Calma (2020, p. 1) that while reflective thinking is highly valued in business, it is often absent from the education of business students. The lack of emphasis on teaching critical reflection is identified as an underdeveloped facet in higher education (Wraae et al., 2021). Therefore, this study shifts the focus towards a student-centered digital strategy, diverging from the predominantly teacher-centric and reflexive practices often found in the literature (e.g., Ajayi, 2011; Collin et al., 2013; Parker et al., 2020). Although literature emphasises the importance of reflection, business educators often overlook reflection in their experiential learning activities (Perusso et al., 2020). Furthermore, while arts-based approaches like photo elicitation are well-recognised in management and marketing education programs, their potential in experiential learning contexts is often underemphasised in current approaches (Stavraki & Anninou, 2023).

Moreover, following a quantitative research design, this pilot study tests two hypotheses that underpin this teaching initiative, aiming to ascertain the effects of digital competence in e-portfolio construction on the relationship between the effectiveness of photo-use to capture learning experiences and the level of reflective writing skills development. In doing so, the present study addresses a highlighted need by Guo (2022, p. 123), who suggested that “due to prior inconsistent findings, there is a necessity to examine technology as a moderator to clarify its impact”. Expanding on Krauss’s (1983) ideas, the study argues that metaphorical representations in the form of photographs that capture learning experiences can offer a context from which meaning can emerge. This, in turn, enhances awareness of thoughts and emotions, facilitating the generation of insights and understanding during critical reflection. However, photographs alone may not provide a comprehensive narrative of the learning journey and necessitate an effective integration mechanism. Therefore, the study suggests that digital competence in e-portfolio development, combined with photographs that encapsulate learning experiences, enhances students’ recollection and comprehension of their experiences. This enhancement, in turn, supports reflective capacity, the process of making meaning, and the cultivation of profound insights and understanding (Wald et al., 2010). Although the research around the focus of this study has its merits, they are dominated by qualitative research designs (e.g., Shinas & Wen, 2022) while business education research is silent on this topic (Guo, 2022). Hence, this study contributes to the advancement of pedagogy within business teaching and learning literature through a quantitative study, a departure from the prevalent qualitative studies. This quantitative validation of the theoretical foundations of a new initiative within a capstone unit, as exemplified in this study, is both timely and worthy of further scholarly exploration (Goodwin et al., 2019; Holt et al., 2016). This is particularly relevant given the increasing use of capstone subjects to demonstrate assurance of learning for accrediting agencies in Australia (Cullen, 2017). Moreover, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), the international accrediting body for business schools, consistently advocates for a focus on nurturing critical thinkers within business degree programs (Desai et al., 2016). Likewise, UNESCO has pinpointed critical thinking as a pivotal competency required for sustainable development in the modern era (Straková & Cimermanová, 2018).

What follows is the theoretical background that underpins the development of the hypotheses presented in this study. This is followed by a comprehensive explanation of the methodological approach adopted by this study, along with a description of the proposed pilot teaching initiative. The ensuing section delves into the analysis and discussion of the results, exploring their implications for both research and practical application. The paper concludes by shedding light on the limitations of the study and suggesting potential directions for future research endeavours.

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Reflective thinking

Reflective thinking is a process of meaning-making through transforming learning experiences (Fullana et al., 2016). It involves contemplating past experiences, events, or situations to gain insight, learn from them, and make meaning out of them. Thus, it is a self-examination process where individuals assess their thoughts, emotions, actions, and reactions in various contexts allowing students to focus on personal growth, self-awareness, and understanding their perspectives, biases, and values. It can involve considering how an experience affected the student emotionally, intellectually, and behaviourally. Reflective thinking is applied in critical reflection which is a process of “thinking about the conditions for what one is doing and the effects” (Steier, 1991, p. 2). Consequently, the practice of reflective writing is advocated as an effective approach to nurturing students’ higher-order thinking capabilities (Fu et al., 2022). This capacity empowers students to critically analyse and substantiate their assertions based on their learning experiences. Reflective thinking provides the introspective awareness, challenges underlying assumptions, and deepens understanding to inform future practice that can lead to improved critical thinking (Wang et al., 2018).

2.2. Reflective thinking skill development

The practice of reflective thinking and engaging in reflection processes holds the potential to bolster analytical and decision-making skills. This equips students with the tools to enhance their personal growth and fosters an environment where students’ learning experiences can be optimised. Therefore, the significance of reflection and the practice of reflective thinking has garnered considerable interest among scholars and has gained acknowledgment across diverse fields and subjects. However, business schools have faced criticism for neglecting the explicit instruction and cultivation of critical reflective thinking and analytical skills. They have also been found lacking in methodologies that facilitate students in connecting theoretical knowledge with practical application (e.g., Davies & Calma, 2020).

To address this gap, the integration of reflective writing is frequently recommended across various academic disciplines (e.g., Calma & Davies, 2021; Fu et al., 2022). This practice is seen as integral to fostering and nurturing higher-order thinking as well as metacognition skills, which collectively contribute to personal, intellectual, and professional advancement (Ramlal & Augustin, 2020). The transformational learning pedagogy suggests that when it comes to developing reflective thinking skills, it’s important to take a comprehensive approach. This is because the process of critical reflection is something that evolves over time and is deeply connected to our personal experiences (Taylor, 2009). These experiences lead to transformations in three key dimensions: our thoughts, emotions, and actions (Jarvis, 2006). Hence, the current study emphasises a holistic method for nurturing critical reflective skills and aligns with the perspective of Alt et al. (2022) who offer a framework for understanding the development of reflective thinking skills. This framework considers the cognitive (thinking), affective (feeling), and behavioural (acting) aspects of skill development. By considering these three dimensions, the study aims to provide a more complete and integrated strategy for enhancing reflective thinking skills.

As a metacognitive ability, the cognitive dimension of reflective skill development encompasses abilities such as awareness, evaluation, and regulation (e.g., Gómez-Chacón et al., 2014). These skills encourage students to analyse facts, information, and underlying causes, enhancing their comprehension of events and reasoning. Challenging assumptions and preconception improves awareness of potential biases or misconceptions that could impact interpretations which nurture critical thinking, enabling objective evaluation of complicated scenarios and informed decision-making (Magno, 2010; Rivas et al., 2022). The affective dimension of reflective thinking skill development focuses on students’ emotional responses, enabling them to grasp their reactions to different situations and stimuli which subsequently develops emotional and response management (Lefebvre et al., 2022). Further, this self-awareness empowers students to devise strategies for emotional regulation and balanced decision-making (Arefian, 2023; Frenzel et al., 2016). Behavioural-level reflective skills involve actions and behaviours to discern effective and ineffective approaches in a situation enabling students to learn from experiences and accordingly develop future responses (Alt et al., 2022). Identifying behaviour patterns empowers students to address unproductive habits, fostering personal development. By consciously altering obstructive behaviours, students facilitate their own growth (Ziegahn, 2007).

Much of the empirical work on reflective thinking is based on professional contexts such as teacher education (e.g., Kayapinar & Alkhaldi, 2023; Savluk et al., 2021) and healthcare contexts (e.g., George et al., 2022; Tsingos-Lucas et al., 2016; Tutticci et al., 2018) and there is a handful of literature on improving our understanding of critical reflective thinking in business learning and practices (Calma & Davies, 2021). Business education research on reflective thinking mainly explores the role of critical reflection/reflective thinking in pedagogy (e.g., Mackay & Tymon, 2013; Powell & Nayak, 2022; Statler, 2014), education sustainability (Brunstein et al., 2018), reflective learning (Elo et al., 2022); employability skill development (Mainga et al., 2022), and experiential learning (Norris, 2021). However, there is a lack of clarity in the effectiveness of reflective interventions and the potential role of technological tools in facilitating reflection (Guo, 2022).

3. Conceptual model and hypotheses

Building on teaching and learning literature, this study argues that reflective thinking skills can be developed through visual thinking strategies such as photographs to capture learning experiences (e.g., Carrascal et al., 2019; Forde et al., 2018; Grimwood et al., 2015) together with online learning tools such as e-portfolios (Visser & Flynn, 2018). A photograph capturing learning experiences adds an imaginative new dimension to reflection processes by providing a mechanism for reflection-in-practice (Parker et al., 2020). Further, an e-portfolio is a web-based collection of learning artifacts such as text, video, images, and sounds that can be updated and adapted for various purposes and audiences and related reflections focused on learning and growth. The digital competence acquired through the construction of an e-portfolio can serve as a bridge between utilising photographs to capture learning experiences and the development of reflective thinking skills. Thus, a conceptual model was developed to propose and test the relationship between the use of photographs to capture learning experiences and the development of critical reflection skills in the context of creating an e-portfolio (Figure 1). This is timely as the inconsistent findings in the extant literature provide inconclusive evidence on the impact of technology on reflective thinking skill development (Guo, 2022). The following section elaborates on the development of hypotheses proposed in this pilot study.

Figure 1. The proposed conceptual model.

3.1. The effectiveness of photo usage to capture learning experiences and reflective thinking skill development

The photos captured throughout one’s learning journey can act as triggers for reflection. They can evoke memories and emotions tied to specific moments, assignments, or projects promoting individual and collective reflection and improving students’ recall and comprehension of their experiences (Parker et al., 2020). When photo-use is perceived as valuable, individuals may use visual representations to track their progress over time. This visual thinking strategy tool enables learners to verify that perception is not only the recipient of information but also strengthens cognitive functions as the integration of all the senses, with the thinking being construed makes an effective mode of perception (Carrascal et al., 2019). While all forms of creative expression increase self-awareness, a photograph is a unique medium that offers a promising advantage in accessing the subconscious mind (Forde et al., 2018) by supplying a context from which meaning can evolve’ (Krauss, 1983, p. 54). The information someone obtains, and processes comes through their eyes and is learned from their interactions and experiences with the environment (Goldberg & Middleman, 1980). Photographs often possess a depth that can evoke a wide range of emotions and associations. Individuals who view photo-use as useful are more likely to engage in authentic reflection. As individuals interpret these images and consider the various layers of meaning they hold, they are compelled to engage in a deeper level of introspection. This leads to a richer understanding of their experiences and the insights they have gained from them (Wald et al., 2010). Therefore, it is hypothesised:

H₁:

The higher the effectiveness of photo-use to capture learning experiences the higher the level of reflective thinking skills.

3.2. The effect of digital competence on the relationship between the effectiveness of photo-use to capture learning experiences and reflective thinking skill development

Establishing a critical community of inquiry is a foundational aspect of higher education (Garrison et al., 2001). Such a community involves reconstructing learning experiences and knowledge through the analysis of subject matter, questioning assumptions, and challenging ideas (Lipman, 1991). In this context, e-portfolios are recognised as potent pedagogical tools that enrich higher education learning. E-portfolios cultivate digital competencies by providing a platform for learners to actively engage in creating meaningful learning experiences. Digital competence is the set of knowledge, skills, attitudes, abilities, strategies, and awareness that are required when using ICT and digital media to perform tasks, solve problems, communicate, manage information, collaborate, create and share content, and build knowledge effectively, efficiently, appropriately, critically, creatively, autonomously, flexibly, ethically, reflectively for work, leisure, participation, learning and socialising (Ferrari, 2012, p. 30). Therefore, following Pedaste et al. (2023) and Weinert (2001), this study defines digital competence as the confidence, knowledge, and ability gained by developing an e-portfolio using the Adobe portfolio application. This engagement aids in comprehending their lived, encountered, and delivered learning (Buyarski et al., 2017). Furthermore, e-portfolios facilitate the synthesis of connections between learning experiences that occur across diverse contexts and environments thus, fostering profound learning (Radovanović et al., 2015; Wakimoto & Lewis, 2014).

Using photographs to capture learning experiences, along with the digital competencies gained from constructing e-portfolios, enhances learners’ interaction with subject matter. It aids in remembering, understanding underlying principles, and engaging multiple senses. Constructivist learning theories support e-portfolio development by emphasising experiential learning, self-discovery, inquiry, problem-solving, and collaboration (Abrami & Barrett, 2005). Reflective e-portfolios enable learners to assess their strengths and weaknesses, connect learning with authentic experiences and make sense of what they have learned (Doig et al., 2006; Wakimoto & Lewis, 2014). However, photographs alone cannot provide a comprehensive narrative of learning. Effective integration of photos is supported by digital competence in e-portfolio development, enhancing writing and students’ recall and comprehension. Educational approaches are vital for developing digital skills, requiring knowledge, experience, practicality, and creativity (Vodă et al., 2022). Exposure to tools that improve digital literacy is pivotal, in establishing a strong foundation for skill competence. Digital competence within e-portfolio development enables diverse modes of learning expression—visual, oral, written, video, fostering self-directed learning and autonomy (Buyarski et al., 2017). This medium aids reflective capacity components like presence, emotion awareness, discomfort acknowledgment, and meaning-making, leading to deeper insights (Wald et al., 2010). Furthermore, constructing e-portfolios enhances digital literacy, nurturing critical thinking, effective communication, and creativity in a digital landscape (Radovanović et al., 2015). In essence, combining photographic images, digital competencies, and e-portfolio construction enriches learning, promotes reflection, and cultivates essential digital skills. Individuals with digital competence are better able to leverage the benefits of photo-use for reflective thinking, which in turn enhances their overall reflective thinking skills (Ayaz & Gök, 2022). Therefore, it is hypothesised that:

H₂:

Digital competence in e-portfolio construction strengthens the relationship between the effectiveness of photo-use to capture learning experiences on the level of reflective thinking skills.

4. Methodology

4.1. Teaching initiative and study context

This study complied with the required ethical clearance by an Australian University’s Human Research Ethics Committee (Approval number: 20226735–10921). The “Adobe Visualise” initiative serves as a pilot program within an undergraduate capstone unit offered in the Bachelor of Business Degree. This unit is firmly rooted in the principles of experiential learning (Kolb, 2014) and guided by constructivist and situated learning philosophies (Gherardi & Nicolini, 2002). Within this initiative, students collaborate in groups, fostering a community of practice (Wenger et al., 2002). They participate in a real-time problem-solving project that involves dissecting a given business issue through the application of various design thinking and management consulting tools and frameworks. This process leads to the creation of recommendations such as marketing plans, business strategies, and market entry approaches. The students then craft a comprehensive implementation plan for the client to enact the proposed solutions. Following these activities, students engage in critical reflection on their learning experiences within the Unit.

The “Adobe Visualise” teaching initiative is an innovative pedagogical approach that combines traditional reflective writing with e-portfolio construction using the Adobe Portfolio (Pf) application. Its primary goal was to enhance students’ reflective thinking skills. This initiative introduced a hybrid method that involves capturing weekly learning experiences through photographs and leveraging e-portfolio creation to foster critical reflection. The core intervention within this initiative revolved around the use of photographs to encapsulate significant weekly learning encounters. Students linked these photos to both theoretical and practical content covered during the week. They then engaged in critical reflection on these experiences. The e-portfolio, developed using Adobe Portfolio, served as a repository for these captured photographs alongside written narrative reflections. Each week, students were tasked with selecting photos that hold reflective, introspective, and personal significance about their Unit’s learning experiences. By framing their chosen scenes, students assessed their surroundings and made critical connections between the experience and subject matter. This photographic reflective portfolio offered them a unique channel for expression and choice, encompassing elements like place, time, angles, and location (Forde et al., 2018; Wald et al., 2010). This process encouraged students to delve into their emotions, reservations, and personal development within the Unit. The underlying principle of this initiative is that it cultivated an analytical distance between students’ emotions and the subject matter. It prompts them to examine their own learning experiences, uncover the deep-seated allegiances, and motivations as students. This aspect aligns with the foundation of critical reflective writing, where practitioners intentionally explore their emotions, actions, responses, and experiences to extract meaning and attain a higher level of understanding.

Over 10 weeks in the Unit, students progressively constructed their portfolios by documenting their experiences every week and these efforts were facilitated by a range of supportive resources and learning opportunities. These included a comprehensive assessment description, reviews of the assessment task conducted in class, an instructional video outlining the task, brief reflective in-class exercises, a pre-recorded lecture on critical reflection within business contexts, and concise videos recommended by Adobe Inc. These Adobe-recommended videos showcased the construction of e-portfolios using Pf. The intention behind these diverse learning opportunities was to provide a thorough understanding of the rationale behind the task and the appropriate approach to undertake. Additionally, they aimed to offer clarity on the step-by-step process involved in the development of the reflective portfolio.

4.2. Data collection instrument

In this pilot study, a deductive approach utilising a cross-sectional explanatory survey design was employed to test the proposed hypotheses (Judd et al., 1991). The survey questionnaire was developed in adherence to survey research guidelines (De Vaus, 1995), featuring multiple-item measures to assess respondents’ information, critical, and technical literacy. The survey was constructed on the Qualtrics survey platform, a commonly used tool in business research (Eggers et al., 2013; Mehlhorn et al., 2015). To enhance data integrity and mitigate issues related to lower self-regulation effects in online surveys, several measures were taken. These included implementing survey settings to prevent multiple respondent enrolments, careful consideration of questionnaire length, employing diverse question formats, minimising the use of extensive recall-based questions, and providing clear instructions to participants (Joinson, 1998).

To counteract common method bias, several procedural measures were adopted (Podsakoff et al., 2003). These encompassed the use of an ethics Participant Information Sheet aligned with Human Research Ethics Committee guidelines and obtaining approval to clarify the study’s purpose (Jordan & Troth, 2020). Existing scales were used to measure study variables, respondents’ anonymity and confidentiality were maintained during data collection to reduce evaluation apprehension, and any unclear terms were further clarified (Jordan & Troth, 2020).

4.3. Data collection and analysis

The survey was distributed to all undergraduate students enrolled in the Bachelor of Business Degree’s capstone unit, totalling 206 students. The distribution was carried out through an announcement containing the survey link embedded in the Unit’s Learning Management System (LMS). The objective of this survey was to gauge students’ perception of their digital literacy and the extent to which their reflective thinking skills were developed during tasks involving reflective portfolio creation. A follow-up reminder announcement for the survey was issued two weeks after the initial announcement.

Out of the forty-five total returned surveys (response rate of 22 percent), there were four incomplete surveys. They were removed from the analysis due to “person-level missingness of data” (Newman, 2014) and the remaining 41 usable surveys were used for further analysis. The sample size and response rates in this study align with those typically found in parallel studies within the same field (e.g., Mcclelland, 2006; Shin et al., 2023; Smith et al., 2014; Tutticci et al., 2016). Fifty-six percent of them had some form of previous experience in creating an e-portfolio while 53 percent had used self-imagery-based reflective writing tasks for various assessments either in the current degree or in another course. To test for non-response bias, early and late respondent groups were compared in terms of all the study variables following previous studies (e.g., Nandakumar et al., 2010). Responses received before the reminder were classified as early respondents (n = 26) while those received after the reminder announcement were classified as late respondents (n = 15). These two groups were compared employing the Independent Sample t-test parametric test (Hair et al., 2021) and the statistically insignificant test confirmed the absence of serious non-response bias in the data [critical reflection skill development, t=-0.608, p > 0.10, F = 1.23, df=39, p > 0.10; technical literacy, t=-0.220, p>0.10, F = 1.39, df=39, p > 0.10; critical literacy, t=-0.352, p > 0.10, F = 0.108, df=39, p > 0.10; and the use of self-imagery, t=-0.163, p > 0.10, F = 0.024, df=39, p > 0.10] (Armstrong & Overton, 1977).

4.4. Measures

Five self-developed items were used to measure the use of photographs to capture learning experiences. Respondents were asked to rate the perceived effectiveness of using photographs to capture learning experiences. The stem of the question was “What is your perception of the use of photographs to capture your learning experience in writing your reflective journal?” The digital competence in creating an Adobe e-portfolio was defined following extant literature (e.g., Ferrari, 2012; Pedaste et al., 2023) and measured using four self-developed perceptual items. For instance, respondents were asked to rate their assessment on the level of confidence, knowledge, ability, and skills executing various elements of the Pf application (e.g., my current level of knowledge about the features and functions of the Adobe Portfolio application). The stem of the question was, “Please rate your current level of ability on the following items with regards to Adobe Portfolio”. Items measuring reflective thinking skill development were sourced from Alt et al. (2022). The respondents were asked to rate their perceived level of reflective thinking experience under three dimensions: cognitive, behavioural, and affective following Alt et al. (2022). All these measurement items were anchored onto a 5-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s Alpha test (Malhotra & Grover, 1998) indicated strong reliability levels for digital competency in creating Adobe e-portfolio (α = 0.79); the use of photographs to capture learning experiences (α = 0.96); and reflective thinking skill development—affective level (α = 0.90), behavioural level (α = 0.86), and cognitive level (α = 0.88).

4.5. Exploratory factor analysis

The Kaiser Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.74 exceeding the lower threshold of 0.5 (Kaiser, 1981). Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant [Chi-square = 558.05, df = 153 at p=<0.01] (Bartlett, 1950). Factor extraction was performed employing the principal component analysis (Velicer & Jackson, 1990) with varimax rotation. This process extracted three components as expected but items—COG1 and AFF3 representing the cognitive and affective levels of critical reflection skill development respectively, were cross-loaded with negative loadings and thus, removed from the analysis. The repeated EFA extracted three clear factors which were considered for further analysis [Chi-square = 458.27, df = 120 at p<0.01]. The final rotated component matrix with all the items is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Measurement items with factor loading

Rotated Component Matrix	Component
Statements	1	2	3
EPH1: It helped me process what my photograph means to me.	0.140	0.912	−0.139
EPH2: It helped me self-identify my own learning and growth.	0.181	0.916	−0.241
EPH3: It provided a cue/clue or prompt to explore and analyse my learning experience in the Unit.	0.276	0.875	−0.048
EPH4: It helped me identify my emotions, actions, and responses to specific learning experiences easily.	0.324	0.857	−0.094
EPH5: It helped me focus on my specific learning experiences when writing the reflections.	0.347	0.825	0.045
Writing in the reflective portfolio enabled me to:
COG2 - Think about the experiences I had during the Unit that improved my learning methods.	0.906	0.193	−0.064
COG3 - Describe the main issues raised during the Unit.	0.906	0.141	0.017
BEH1 - Evaluate what worked well during the learning activity.	0.748	0.317	−0.153
BEH2 - Think whether the way I learned.	0.665	0.368	−0.120
BEH3 - Evaluate the problems that emerged during the learning activity.	0.800	0.317	−0.345
AFF1 - Describe my feelings during the course or assignment.	0.900	0.144	−0.254
AFF2 - Evaluate the reason for the feelings that emerged during the course or assignment	0.806	0.235	−0.286
EPC1 - My current level of confidence in working with Adobe Portfolio	−0.225	−0.245	0.675
EPC2 - My current level of knowledge about the features and functions of the Adobe Portfolio application	−0.083	0.108	0.828
EPC3 - My current level of ability to use Adobe Portfolio for showcasing the learning experience	−0.090	−0.165	0.819
EPC4 - My current level of ability to use various features and functions of Adobe Portfolio to reflect on the learning experience	−0.222	−0.087	0.889

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations.

Key: EPH—items measuring the effectiveness of photo-use; COG—items measuring the cognitive level of reflective thinking skills; BEH—items measuring the behavioural level of reflective thinking skills; AFF—items measuring the affective level of reflective thinking skills; and EPC—items measuring digital competence in e-portfolio construction

4.6. Control variables

As a significant number of respondents indicated some form of previous experience in e-portfolio construction and the use of photographs for reflective tasks, this study used them as control variables in the model. According to cognitive and educational psychology research, the link between experience and performance is mediated by skills (Dokko et al., 2009). Creating an e-portfolio involves analysing their own work to determine which pieces best demonstrate their learning and skills along with evidence of their work or accomplishments. This encourages them to think critically about their learning experiences, articulate their thoughts, and make connections between theory and practice (Bonesso et al., 2018; Dokko et al., 2009). Further, working with photographs improves attention to detail and the ability to discern important elements within a visual context encouraging students to analyse the content, composition, and context of the images. This analytical thinking helps them draw meaningful insights and connections, which is a vital component of critical thinking. However, previous experience with e-portfolio construction and photo use may have familiarised students with the process of evaluating the relevance, quality, and credibility of the information and the photos they include in the portfolio and thus, continuous revisiting of experiences may enhance critical reflection skills (Sultana et al., 2020). Hence, these two variables were included in the model as two separate categorical variables. Having previous experience in e-portfolio construction and photo use for reflective task was coded as “1” and no previous experience was coded as “0”.

5. Findings

Hypotheses were tested in a progressive approach employing hierarchical linear regressions with reflective thinking skill development as the dependent variable (Aiken et al., 1991; Jaccard et al., 2003). The descriptive statistics of the variables are reported in Table 2 and the results of the regression tests are summarised in Table 3.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of study variables

No	Variable	Mean	SD	1	2	3
1	Reflective thinking skill development	3.96	0.61
2	Digital competence in e-portfolio construction	3.85	0.65	−.428**
3	Perceived usefulness of photo-use	3.63	1.00	.449**	−0.216	0.044

Note: **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 3. Results of the hierarchical linear regression test: with control variables vs. Without control variables

	Preliminary models with control variables						Final models without control variables
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 1		Model 2
	$\mathit{\beta }$	S.E.	$\mathit{\beta }$	S.E.	$\mathit{\beta }$	S.E.	$\mathit{\beta }$	S.E.	$\mathit{\beta }$	S.E.
Constant Control variables	3.80	(0.16)	4.50	(0.72)	4.39	(0.70)	4.39	(0.69)	4.38	(0.65)
PEPR^1	0.12	(0.21)	0.08	(0.20)	−0.01	(0.20)	-	-	-	-
PEPH^2	0.08	(0.21)	0.03	(0.19)	0.04	(0.18)	-	-	-	-
Direct effects
UPH^3			0.30*	(0.10)	0.31**	(0.10)	0.34	(0.09)	0.32**	(0.08)
DCE^4			−0.33**	(0.14)	−0.30**	(0.14)	−0.32	(0.14)	−0.29**	(0.13)
Two-way interactions
UPH X DCE					0.29**	(0.08)			0.29**	(0.08)
R-square		0.03		0.26		0.34		0.26		0.34
Adjusted R-square		−0.02		0.19		0.26		0.22		0.29
R-squared change		0.02		0.23***		0.08**		0.26**		0.09**

a. Dependent Variable: Reflective thinking skill development

***p<0.01; **p<0.05; *p<0.10

Note 1: Standardised β coefficients are reported.

Note 2: Standard errors are reported in brackets.

Note 3: PEPR¹: Previous experience of e-portfolio construction; PEPH²: previous experience of using photographs for reflective tasks; UPH³: the usefulness of photo-use to capture learning experiences, DCE⁴: digital competence in e-portfolio construction

According to Table 2, while digital competence has a negative association with reflective thinking skill development, critical literacy indicates a positive correlation. Further, the use of photographs for reflective writing tasks is positively correlated with reflective writing skill development. Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) for all the variables are less than the generally accepted cut-off value of 5 (Hair et al., 2021) indicating less potential for serious multicollinearity issues in the data. However, following Aiken et al. (1991), all the variables were zero-centered to prevent any potential multicollinearity issues due to interactions in the regression models. Three models were tested in a progressive approach with the first model being the control variables only model, the second being the model with direct effects, and finally, the third being the contingency model (see Table 3 – Preliminary models with control variables).

The first model in the preliminary analysis explains only 0.3% of the variation in the level of reflective thinking skills. The second model reports an increment of nearly 23% of R² (ΔF = 6.35, p < 0.01) where the use of photographs to capture learning experiences indicates a marginally significant positive effect on the level of reflective thinking skills and thus, supports hypothesis 1 (b = 0.30, p < 0.10). With another 8 percent increase in R² (ΔF = 4.77, p < 0.05), the two-way interactions model supports H₂ which predicted the interaction effect of digital competence and the effectiveness of photo-use (b = 0.29, p < 0.05) on the level of reflective thinking skills.

However, Table 3 indicates that the two control variables are statistically insignificant indicating that they have no impact on the studied relationship. Inclusion of non-significant control variables reduces the parsimoniousness of the specified model and increases the risk of collinearity and overfitting (Atinc et al., 2012; Bernerth et al., 2018; Nielsen & Raswant, 2018; Weerakoon, 2023). Therefore, hierarchical linear regression model was re-run excluding control variables (Bernerth et al., 2018; Nielsen & Raswant, 2018) and the resulting findings are presented in Table 3. These results were considered as the final outcomes for interpretation and discussion in the study.

The direct effects model explains 22% of the variation in the level of reflective thinking skills. The use of photographs to capture learning experiences indicates a significant positive effect on the level of reflective thinking skills and thus, supports hypothesis 1 (b = 0.33, p < 0.05). It indicates that the more students use photographs for capturing learning experiences in reflective tasks, the more likely they are to engage in deeper, more insightful, and more meaningful reflective thinking, which contributes to the enhancement of their overall reflective thinking skills. Although not predicted, digital competence indicates a statistically significant negative effect on the level of reflective thinking skills (b= −0.33, p<0.05). The second model reports an increment of nearly 8% of R² (ΔF = 5.34, p < 0.05) where the two-way interactions model supports H₂ which predicted the interaction effect of digital competence and the effectiveness of photo-use (b = 0.29, p < 0.05) on the level of reflective thinking skills. This interaction effect is exhibited in Figure 2. Confirming hypothesis H₂, Figure 2 demonstrates that the positive relationship between the effectiveness of photo-use and the level of reflective thinking skills is strengthened by digital competence. This means that higher digital competence enables individuals to leverage the potential of photographs more effectively for reflective purposes, thereby contributing to the development of their reflective thinking skills.

Figure 2. Moderation effect of digital competence on the relationship between the photo-use to capture learning experiences and reflective thinking skill development.

Nonetheless, apart from a higher level of significance affirming the positive impact of utilising photos to capture learning experiences, the results have not undergone substantial changes in the absence of control variables.

6. Discussion

The study aimed to shed light on a pilot teaching initiative implemented in a business capstone unit, with two primary objectives: reporting on a digital approach to enhance the reflective thinking skills of undergraduates and examining the effects of digital competence on the relationship between the effectiveness of photo-use to capture learning experiences and developing reflective thinking skills. The following is a discussion of the key findings, outcomes, and implications along these two objectives.

6.1. Reporting on a digital approach to enhance the reflective thinking skills

Through the exploration of the “Adobe Visualise” pilot teaching initiative, the research showcased how a digital approach to capturing learning experiences can effectively enhance the development of students’ reflective thinking skills. The literature about the fusion of visual thinking approaches in conjunction with e-portfolio construction for capturing and presenting learning experiences to foster critical reflective skill development in business education is notably limited. However, there is a growing body of work focused on promoting reflection through art-based mechanisms and other visual techniques like photo essays (Gil, 2019; Wald et al., 2010) and photo-elicitation technique (Brand & Mcmurray, 2009) in other disciplines. Much of the literature on this topic resides in disciplines such as medicine and health care (e.g., Brand & Mcmurray, 2009; Wald et al., 2010); teacher education (e.g., Parker et al., 2020); tourism education (e.g., Grimwood et al., 2015); and physical education (e.g., Azzarito et al., 2016). Therefore, the current study extends the understanding of the effective use of photographs and e-portfolios to develop reflective thinking skills in an overlooked context, that of business education.

The traditional report-based documentation produces mechanistic, reductionist, and superficial descriptions without deeper exploration into the learning experiences (Mcintosh et al., 2006). Instead of report-based journaling and diaries to document reflections (e.g., Clarke & Burgess, 2009), this teaching initiative enabled students to present their reflection on learning experience as a digital story by creating an e-portfolio with photographs capturing learning experiences and written narratives. It provided students the voice of the camera which served as a means for grappling with emotions and stimuli such as the physical context of students they find themselves in instead of traditional report-based dry reflections. When individuals or groups engage with these images, they are prompted to re-immerse themselves in the situations and emotions depicted. This process naturally stimulates reflective thinking by encouraging them to revisit their thoughts, reactions, and feelings tied to those captured moments. Aligning with experiential learning principles (Kolb, 2014), photographs to capture learning experiences help students “express insights, understandings, disappointments, questions, commitments and more” (Pritchard & Whitehead Iii, 2004, p. 235) and thereby “ignite inquiry … promote self-awareness, self-monitoring, reflective and reflexive practice while producing questions and answers … .” Lemon (2007, p.183).

Therefore, an important implication of this study for educators is to consider leveraging the power of visual cues of photos in reflective writing as they can be an effective tool for fostering more comprehensive and meaningful reflective thinking leading to enriched learning outcomes and a deeper understanding of students’ personal and academic journey. This study further suggests that a carefully and intentionally designed methodology and strategy are essential to achieve the expected outcomes (Ash & Clayton, 2009). Especially, a careful blend of technological tools is a necessity in developing the initiative. For instance, in this teaching initiative, e-portfolio and the associated digital competence are used to support the digital story development via photographic images and written narratives capturing learning experiences. In addition, students were facilitated by various arrangements including class discussions and activities on reflective writing, explainer videos on e-portfolio creation, and a detailed assessment description. This requirement of planning and support is well-acknowledged in the assessment development related literature (e.g., Deneen et al., 2018; Sultana et al., 2020). Hence, this teaching initiative design contributes to teaching practices in business education by joining in and adding to the discussion on improving reflective thinking among business undergraduates in practice as outlined by earlier literature. Thus, the “integration of digital storytelling is a vehicle to teach and model pedagogically sound, student-centered use of technology” (Shinas & Wen, 2022, p. 1).

6.2. The effects of digital competence on the relationship between the effectiveness of photo-use and developing reflective thinking skills

The second objective of this study was achieved by testing three models in a progressive approach using hierarchical linear regression. All hypotheses were supported by the data and two main findings emerged from the statistical analysis. First, confirming hypothesis 1, study findings uncover that the effectiveness of photo-use to capture learning experiences is positively related to the reflective thinking skill development of undergraduates. This can be attributed to the visual metaphor in a photograph which has the potential to generate insight and understanding (Krauss, 1983). Hence, the integration of photographs to explain the learning experience enhances aesthetic knowledge and thereby facilitates discovering meanings of experiences, develops empathy and intuitive actions (Brand & Mcmurray, 2009), and promotes self-awareness. This finding is consistent with the results observed in other disciplines such as health science (e.g., Skoy & Werremeyer, 2020), teacher education (e.g., Hahl, 2021; To, 2020), and social change (e.g., Liebenberg, 2018). However, business education research is silent on this topic (Guo, 2022). Further, although the current research around the focus of this study has its merits, they are dominated by qualitative research designs (e.g., Shinas & Wen, 2022). Thus, building on studies such as Krauss (1983), Sandars and Murray (2009) and Parker et al. (2020), this study advances the discussion on the use of art forms to foster reflective thinking skills of undergraduates in a quantitative research design to statically demonstrate the effect of photographs to capture learning experiences.

Second, this study finds that the higher the level of digital competencies in e-portfolio creation, the stronger will be the relationship between the effectiveness of photo-use to capture learning experiences and the reflective thinking skill development of undergraduates (Hypothesis 2). One explanation to this finding is that in this modern technology-drive society, rapid changes in information availability and complexity necessitate constant adaptation, acquisition of new information-seeking methods, and shifts in problem-solving approaches (Ayaz & Gök, 2022). On the one hand, digital skills in e-portfolio creation facilitates efficient evidence collection (Song, 2021) and meaning making of unconnected information (Sultana et al., 2020). On the other hand, photo use to capture learning experiences as an arts-based approach “relate with more active, embodied, and affective processes to learning and teaching” (Stavraki & Anninou, 2023, p. 532). This digital meaning-making enables “multimodal expression of emotions” (Mills & Unsworth, 2018, p. 618) inscribing and invoking feelings (Shinas & Wen, 2022). It subsequently allows students to look back on events, make judgements, and modify relevant behaviours (Ayan & Seferoğlu, 2011). Hence, digital competence in e-portfolio creation is a significant pre-skill for critical thinking (Kocak et al., 2021) as it supports reflection, and self-tracking; fosters continued and deeper learning (Jenson & Treuer, 2014); and promotes self-directed learning (Song, 2021). This finding is partially consistent with the results of Tzeng et al. (2015) and Ebil et al. (2020) while partially contradictory to observations by Farahian et al. (2021).

Although there is a considerable level of studies on the use of e-portfolios in the higher education context, accounts of the synergistic use of digital tools in critical reflection are rare. Hence, current study’s proposed multi-media, interactive approach to critical reflection achieved through a combination of photographs and digital competence in constructing e-portfolios encouraged students to ask critical questions, assess and analyse information, construct new meanings, and communicate effectively (Carrascal et al., 2019). Therefore, the statistical findings of this study have important implications for teaching and learning and suggest that the technology can be utilised to support learners to be better reflective practitioners and to promote critical evaluation (Strampel & Oliver, 2007) by improving their critical thinking, creative thinking skills, and problem-solving skills (Porter et al., 2016). Consequently, this study offers empirically tested evidence that addresses the concerns raised in previous research regarding the appropriate implementation of technology to foster reflection as an independent learning outcome (Guo, 2022). These findings further make an important implication for higher education teaching practice and suggest that there is value in drawing on the synergies offered by the fusion of traditional, modern, and digital approaches to developing reflections as photographs alone cannot wholly represent both the documented experience and its resultant learning. Such approaches enable students to be effective composers of multimodal digital texts that can authentically be shared among various audiences (Shinas & Wen, 2022).

7. Limitations and future research

Although the current study offers promising insights on the synergistic use of a visual strategy and digital competency-building tool to improve reflective thinking skill development in business education, limitations exist. Whilst this study meets the requirements for a pilot study from a statistical point of view (e.g., Smith et al., 2014; Tutticci et al., 2016), caution should be exercised in generalising the findings to all business school contexts given the sample size of the study. Hence, it is recommended that future research should explore the proposed relationships in other university contexts with larger samples to assess the generalisability of study findings. This pilot study also acknowledges the potential limitations of using self-reported data measuring study variables although self-reported measures of learning are considered valid proxies of objective learning measures (D’Saspit & Douza, 2012). To reduce the biases of self-reported measures future research may consider including “both objective and subjective learning measures from different sources” (Benbunan-Fich, 2010, p. 327).

This study empirically showed the use of a range of media to promote reflective learning by enhancing meaning-making within the narrative in an experiential learning environment of business undergraduates. Thus, future research can examine the effectiveness of different types of visual approaches such as infographics and visual metaphors along with an e-portfolio in promoting critical thinking in an experiential learning context. This is timely, as research in business education highlights the necessity for a deeper comprehension of pedagogy and approaches for integrating arts-based methods in the development of higher-order thinking skills (Stavraki & Anninou, 2023). Another fruitful future research avenue is to explore the effects of individual student characteristics on the relationship tested in this study. The findings related to second objective of this study confirmed the positive role played by digital competencies of students on the relationship between photo use and critical thinking skill development. Although this study controlled for prior experience of e-portfolio development and photo use, individual differences in cognitive styles (see Evans et al., 2010; Idris et al., 2023; Riding & Rayner, 2013), and visual learning preferences (see Bracci et al., 2020; Yarbrough, 2019), may moderate the relationship between photo use and the development of critical thinking skills.

8. Conclusion

Reflective practice and reflective writing are essential elements of experiential learning-based capstone units to assist students in moving to a deeper level of understanding. Although they are recognised as mechanisms of developing students’ metacognitive awareness, self-regulated learning behaviours, and reflective thinking skills, business schools are often criticised for lack of explicit approaches to teaching and facilitating reflective thinking skill development and empirical evidence of their application in business capstone subjects is scant. This study attempted to address this challenge by proposing a digital approach to reflective writing and demonstrating the statistical validation of the underpinned theoretical principles. Study findings uncovered that the synergistic effect of the use of photographs to capture learning experiences and digital competence in e-portfolio construction enhances the reflective thinking skill development of business undergraduates. This study encourages the effective integration of visual strategies and digital tools to improve students’ critical reflection skills.

Correction

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Acknowledgement

This study was based on a teaching initiative designed for the Adobe Innovation Grant (i.e., a learning and teaching innovation grant) – Round 2 of 2022 of Swinburne University of Technology. The author would also like to acknowledge the support extended by the Adobe Hub of the University.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Adobe Innovation Grant of Swinburne University of Technology.