A scoping review of professional skills development in engineering education from 1980–2020

Abstract

Engineering students are expected to develop their professional skills throughout the course of their degrees. Yet, there is no clear consensus among educators of which skills are being developed or how this is done effectively. This scoping review has been produced to draw together and disseminate information on effective techniques for developing six specific professional skills (communication, teamwork, problem solving, leadership, project management and entrepreneurship) and tracing the evolution of these skills in engineering education. Using search engines and backwards and forwards snowballing, a scoping literature review on skills development in engineering was conducted, encompassing a 40-year time span (1980–2020). Specified search terms, and inclusion criteria were applied, and findings have been presented quantitatively and qualitatively. In total, 165 studies were included. Key findings indicate skills are more nuanced and accepted today than they were in 1980, with an increased focus on specific skill areas. Additionally, more sophisticated integrated delivery methods are used to teach skills, although short courses remain popular. By synthesising data in this way, professional educators can identify what skill areas to focus on, and how to teach these skills for effective development among students. Gaps in knowledge are also identified through this review. This study is significant in that it has created an exceptionally useful roadmap of skills development, which is of benefit to the engineering community and beyond.

Keywords:

• Professional skills
• student experience
• scoping review
• teaching strategies
• undergraduate and postgraduate education

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Stephen Darwin
• Universidad Alberto Hurtado
• Chile

SUBJECTS:

• Higher Education
• Teaching & Learning
• Study Skills
• Curriculum Studies

Introduction

The case has long been made that engineers require professional skills, in addition to technical ones (Hissey, 2000; Jennings & Ferguson, 1995; Munir, 2022). These professional skills are often known by a raft of different names, having been defined as transferable, generic, employable, professional (Yorke, 2006), and have even been referred to as soft, but foremost, they are transferable; Willmot and Colman (2016) suggest that they are often the skills learnt in an educational context, which are then duly transferred to a professional context. These skills are required by engineers to function effectively in the workplace and in society – serving both in equal measure. For engineers especially, the list may seem inordinately long. As the needs of communities and Governments’ change, engineers are required to adopt new skills, retain the old ones and continually assess and develop their skills bank so they can meet the global challenges of the 21st century (Nair et al., 2009). The Covid-19 pandemic, climate change and other world events mean that engineers need broader professional skills than they did 20 years ago and which enable them to work quickly through global societal problems, e.g. sifting through data, being able to innovate, making sound judgements related to finance and sustainability etc. (Tang et al., 2020). Additionally, engineers are at the forefront of the boom in artificial intelligence through their mastery of machine learning (Adusumalli, 2019) meaning that they need to lead teams on working with this technology, effectively problem solve with the use of machine learning, and communicate their ideas and outputs to the wider community. Similarly, engineers are increasingly turning their research outputs into business ventures so need to be entrepreneurial (Arias et al., 2018). Considering this situation, the professional skills that characterise an engineer are constantly evolving which in turn has an impact on their professional preparation – most of which takes place in a higher education setting. Yet, engineering educators are technical experts rather than champions with regards to professional skills, so developing students’ skills can often be laborious, resource intensive and challenging (Caeiro-Rodríguez et al., 2021). At times, it is difficult to know where to start, and how to ensure effort is not wasted.

Suitable provisions for the development of skills are variable across institutions and countries – a situation that is not helped by the fact that these skills follow fashion and at times are on-trend while at other times they are decidedly not (Heckman & Kautz, 2012). Part of the problem is that the development of these skills can also seem highly unregulated and atomistic in nature, depending on localised, departmental interpretations of what it means for engineers to have professional skills (Farr & Brazil, 2009; Lingard & Barkataki, 2011). Even though professional skills for engineers are necessary, their development is based on loose descriptors that have no fixed benchmark or standards even though most accreditation bodies stipulate that they are an essential requirement (for example the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) and Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE)). As such, the following research questions are being asked:

1. How have 6 specific professional (soft/transferable/generic) skills taught to undergraduate and graduate students from engineering disciplines evolved over the past 40 years?

   • The objective is to establish the skills narrative in engineering education literature (reflecting scale and emphasis of the discourse)

2. How have these skills been effectively developed in students (including monitoring of skills development)

   • The objective is to establish both the successful teaching strategy and method of evaluation

Methodology

In this review, literature on skills development in engineering (especially that available on grey literature databases) is drawn together comprehensively. By comparing the studies available over time, this work attempts to draw together several loose threads and present an account of the development of 6 specific professional skills (communication, teamwork, problem solving, leadership, project management, and entrepreneurship) and in a more succinct manner, to clarify the skills-based narrative within engineering education. A summary of skills-based literature in engineering education could serve as a useful tool in guiding educators responsible for developing the professional skills of their students by exposing important discussions around the selected skills and their development.

The rationale for selecting these 6 skills is that they informed a UK-based Government-funded grant in engineering education (TRANSEND Project, 2000) and subsequently doctoral work on this topic, which was primarily on transferable skills development in chemical engineering (at the time of writing); some of that earlier work is being revisited and expanded upon in this review. A 40-year period for this study was selected, as it both enables us to appreciate a close proximation to our present-day situation, but also be able to meaningfully consider, compare and contrast the earlier work that was carried out in this field – Felder’s (2021) work is an apt example of this. Having conducted a quick search on earlier decades, e.g. 1970s and further back, we determined that the quantity of literature available that potentially fulfilled our criteria was too minimal to add significant value to this review. Therefore, the particular time period chosen seemed a sensible option. By pinpointing the unique and evolving skills set of engineers and the manner in which they have been shaped in this way, it ought to be possible to establish opportunities and challenges for engineering educators tasked with helping their students develop these key skills.

Methodological approach

As this review is focused on a broad interpretation skills development in engineering education over a 40-year period, a scoping review of the literature was considered the most conducive method to answer the research questions proposed. According to the JBI Scoping Reviews Methodology Group (Munn et al., 2022), scoping reviews are ‘a type of evidence synthesis that aims to systematically identify and map the breadth of evidence available on a particular topic, field, concept, or issue, often irrespective of source (i.e. primary research, reviews, non-empirical evidence) within or across particular context’ (p. 951). Key characteristics and knowledge gaps can be identified and key concepts explained through scoping reviews (Munn et al., 2022). Scoping reviews are usually a precursor to systematic reviews as they provide a broad overview ensuring that educators can access a general summary of the knowledge derived from a body of literature (Grant & Booth, 2009; Tricco et al., 2016). Scoping reviews are not always subject to evaluation (the quality of the evidence collated is not assessed), although consultation is often considered (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; Oliver, 2001). Stakeholders are invited to contribute their insights to the study to strengthen it; this process was tenuously carried out through continual peer review of this article. Scoping reviews are systematic, transparent and replicable, with an emphasis on the presentation of data in tabular form (Grant & Booth, 2009). Among the disadvantages of using scoping reviews, there is the difficulty of synthesising the data due to how broad the eventual data collection can be and subsequently the duration of time such reviews can take (Hanneke at el., 2017).

Much of the literature gathered throughout the review process reported upon in this article refers to one-off initiatives within institutions where skills are developed within engineering. By assimilating the literature in this way, the aim is to encourage collective learning from the work of others, with Arksey and O’Malley (2005) maintaining that scoping reviews can be used simply to summarise and disseminate research findings for the use of policy makers, practitioners and others. Additionally, the authors argue that scoping studies are not designed to assess quality of evidence, and thus cannot establish whether particular studies provide robust or generalisable findings. Scoping reviews outside of medical and nursing education are particularly rare, which adds to the novelty of this work (Masta & Secules, 2021; Reed et al., 2020).

Inclusion criteria

For establishing the inclusion criteria, the search was not limited by demographic region, but the following parameters were applied:

• The studies had to relate to research carried out in an engineering education context (for undergraduates and occasionally graduates).

• The search needed to encompass the reporting years from 1980 to 2020.

• One or more of the professional skills identified as the focus of this review (communication, teamwork, problem solving, leadership, project management, and entrepreneurship) had to have been developed, and the teaching strategies used to develop them mentioned.

• Some evidence of students’ development of these skills needed to be recorded (for example, through observation, assessment, interviews, and surveys) to indicate effectiveness of the teaching strategy.

Specific or generic fields of engineering could be referred to within this review as these skills are universal in nature, and some countries (for example the UK) specialise sooner than others (for example the USA). Admittedly, the inclusion criteria points to a literature review that is potentially both broad (professional skills development over a 40-year period) and specific (six key skills where development is evidenced). However, the parameters have been carefully selected to enable a fuller picture to emerge that demonstrates the changing patterns within the set timeframe. By considering specific skills rather than any and all skills, the hope is that a somewhat detailed investigation can also be produced.

Search strategy

In this section, we broadly discuss the framework that has been used to conduct this scoping review. A fixed protocol is required for such reviews, to decrease the likelihood of bias or subjectivity, and to ensure transparency and rigour (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; Munn et al., 2018; Tricco et al., 2016). The one used for this review is provided. As previously mentioned, for this study to be feasible, specific professional skills were considered – communication, teamwork, leadership, problem solving, project management and entrepreneurship. This selection of skills provides enough scope for trendspotting and broadly covers the professional skills we would consider key, although we appreciate the selection is debatable. Originally, Google Scholar (grey literature database) and Scopus (general database) searches of key words, were conducted. These initial searches were conducted by inserting the search strings ‘communication skills in engineering education, teamwork skills in engineering education’ etc. for each skill into search engines, and using the advanced search function (where applicable) to ensure the exact search phrase was recorded. This meant the initial quantity of citations were drastically streamlined early on to sift through inappropriate literature, and built back up through snowballing techniques (as mentioned later).¹ Using Google Scholar as a primary search engine, it was possible to locate journal articles, books and conference proceedings on the topic, whereas Scopus mainly highlighted papers. Following on from the advice of senior peers, the search was broadened to include specific conferences – namely, the annual meeting of the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) and the IEEE Xplore digital library (conference proceedings related to advancing technology for humanity). The additional filter of time was also applied where it was possible to do so (for example when using Google Scholar as the search engine).

Initially, titles and abstracts were read through, and associated notes made to establish whether the study potentially fitted the inclusion criteria. On a few occasions, the first page also had to be read through. This process was further used to determine which studies could be read through in detail to establish a final list of studies to be included or rejected for the review. The inclusion criteria had to be met in full for each potential study. Once potential studies were agreed, an independent researcher verified the inclusion of the sources in this review. An agreed coding schedule (provided as Table 1) was used by the researchers to accommodate the inclusion criteria and other features of interest. The coding schedule depicts the type of code, the criteria of interest to us and the manner in which it was measured. All the ensuing data collated from the use of the coding schedule is presented in chronological order in Table 2.

Table 1. Agreed coding schedule used for analysing the data sources.

Type of code	Criteria	Measure
Core	Publication date	Specified if within time period of interest i.e. 1980-2020
	Skills	Specified if at least one of the 6 skills of interest
	Evaluation method	Specified to highlight how skills were successfully developed
	Specific discipline	Specified if within field of engineering
Selective	Country of reported work	Information noted
	Publication type	Distinction between conference/journal/other

Table 2. Summaries of the studies that were selected for the review (in accordance with inclusion criteria mentioned and other defining features where ⁺denotes conference paper).

Year	Authors	Skills and teaching strategy	Means of reporting student response	Engineering discipline	Country
1983	Petty	Creativity and innovation through curriculum changes	Comparative analysis and observation	Materials	USA
1983	Spicer	Integration of ‘spiral’ approach to enhance students project management	Observations on experiential learning and informal feedback	Software engineering	USA
1983	Souder	Management and career planning through specific program	Observation	Generic	USA
1984	⁺Coney and Ramey	Technical communication through specific program	Analysis of assessments	Generic	USA
1986	Brandt and Sell	Problem solving through a specific program	Case study observation and reflection	Generic	Germany
1986	⁺Railton	Communication skills through integration	Observation	Mechanical	UK
1986	Bakos	Communication through integration	Observation	Civil	USA
1987	Felder	Creative problem solving through personal responsibility (module modification)	40 student surveys	Chemical	USA
1987	Nutman	Communication and teamwork through design project.	Group project assessments/observations	Manufacturing systems	UK
1987	⁺Thamhain and Wilemon	Leadership and teamwork through multidisciplinary design project	500 surveys (incl. managers and professionals)	Generic	USA
1988	Smith	Reflections on reasoning through co-operative learning	Observation	Generic	USA
1988	Marshall	Problem solving through product design	Informal observation	Design engineering	U.K.
1989	Cawley	Problem solving through optional module	48 student surveys	Mechanical	UK
1989	⁺Ellis and Taraman	Problem solving, communication and teamwork through curriculum changes	Observation	Generic	Australia
1989	Levy and Dawkins	Business and management (leadership) through specific program	Secondary data - surveys	Generic	UK
1990	Orazem and Shah	Communication and ethics through specific program	Student comments	Chemical	USA
1993	⁺Baren and Watson	Oral and written communication through modified curriculum.	Observation	Generic	USA
1993	Quinn	Communication and life-long learning through specific program.	Student interviews and evaluations	Generic	USA
1994	Aldridge	Professional practice skills through specific program.	Case study observation	Generic	USA
1994	Miller and Olds	Problem-solving and teamwork through multidisciplinary design	67 student questionnaires	Multidisciplinary	USA
1995	⁺Ivaturi and Greenstein	Teamwork through hypermedia	Pre and post tests on students’ knowledge of teamwork skills, statistically analysed	Generic	USA
1995	⁺Jennings and Ferguson	Communication skills through active learning assignments.	Evaluation of mock public inquiries	Civil	Northern Ireland
1995	Lonsdale et al.	Creative problem solving and communication through specific program.	400+ students completed survey	Electrical	USA
1995	Vest et al.	Communication through multimedia	Case study observations	Generic	USA
1996	⁺Barchilon	Communication through engineering design	Observation	Generic	USA
1996	⁺Burton et al.	Leadership through specific program	Student feedback	Generic	USA
1996	Chapman and Martin	Commercial awareness through a computerised business game	Observation and student feedback	Generic	UK
1996	Hendricks and Pappas	Technical communication through specific program.	Self-assessment of skills	Materials	USA
1996	⁺Looney and Kleppe	Using e-teams to set up entrepreneurship projects/learning opportunities	Assessment through final presentation to industry	Electrical engineering	USA
1997	⁺Jennings et al.	Communication skills through active learning assignments.	Evaluation of mock public inquiries.	Civil Engineering	UK
1997	⁺Torres et al.	Bolt-on course to support entrepreneurial skills development	Non-traditional assessment through evaluation-style feedback	Manufacturing engineering	USA
1998	Baillie and Walker	Creative thinking through integration (3 case studies)	Case study observations	Mechanical	Australia
1998	Beder	Project management through experimentation and technology	Comparative analysis of student surveys	Generic	Australia
1998	Blicblau and Steiner	Creative thinking through design projects.	Analysis of assessment	Generic	Australia
1998	⁺Crowley	Pilot program for teaching communication skills	Observation	Generic	USA
1998	Ferguson	Communication through technology	Observation	Generic	Australia
1998	⁺Grady and Davis	Integration of communication into the curriculum	Feedback obtained from recent graduates (and industry)	Generic	USA
1998	⁺Maskell and Grabau	Problem solving, teamwork and lifelong learning through CAD	Assessed report and follow-up student interview	Generic	Australia
1998	McCahon C.S. and Lavelle J.P.	Cross-disciplinary teamwork, business acumen and project management	Written comments from 74 students	Generic	USA
1998	⁺Mildren et al.	Teamwork is introduced as a learning paradigm through an integrated course	Introducing coursework to assess student performance.	Generic	Australia
1998	⁺Richards	Creative thinking through pre-existing and specifically designed courses.	Case study observations	Mechanical	USA
1999	⁺Seat and Lord	Teamwork through a specific program.	Observation and student comments	Generic	USA
1999	Siller et al.	Using technology to integrate communication into the curriculum (specialist course)	Informal observations	Civil engineering	USA
1999	⁺Odom et al.	Integration of model of practice for enhancing leadership (Capstone)	Observation (behaviour and end result longitudinally)	Mechanical engineering	USA
2000	Bowman and Farr	Embedding leadership into the curriculum	Observation	Civil engineering	USA
2000	⁺Duffy et al.	Teamwork, ethical responsibility, communication through in-service learning.	Self-assessment of skills	Generic	USA
2000	⁺Lucena and Downey	Specific course to help students with their global-centred problem solving	Observations	Aeronautical engineering	USA
2000	Woods et al.	Developing critical thinking skills (problem solving) through activities	Pre and post surveys (on self-awareness)	Chemical engineering	USA
2001	⁺Hunter and Matson	Using experiential learning (framework) to develop teamwork and leadership	Assessment through team assignment	Design industrial engineering	USA
2001	⁺Morris and Fry	Designing, building and racing a car as part of entrepreneurial enhancement	Student assessment through competition	Mechanical engineering	USA
2001	⁺Riemer	Oral communication skills course integrated into curriculum	Students carried out self-assessments	Generic	Australia
2001	Sutinen and Tarhio	Creative problem solving through an integrative pilot course	Observation, essays and presentations	Computer science	Finland
2002	Gilleard and Gilleard	Cross-cultural communication through specific course.	Student surveys	Built services	Hong Kong
2002	Menzies and Paradi	Technology based development of entrepreneurship skills	Survey carried out on control and sample groups	Generic	Canada
2002	⁺Vavreck	Supporting students project management skills through design projects	Reflective observation (with credit going forward)	Multi-disciplinary	USA
2003	⁺Allada and Jose	Case-based problem-solving exercises introduced to students	Informal student perspectives recorded and observation	Generic	USA
2003	⁺Braz et al.	Use of ICT in supporting communication skills development	Built-in e-assessment tools for assessment and development	Civil	Portugal
2003	⁺Coyle et al.	Program that integrates management training to develop entrepreneurship	Students earn academic credit if they fulfil the set outcomes	Multi-disciplinary engineering	USA
2003	Ford and Riley	Communication through curriculum intervention	Analysis of student secondary data	Multi-disciplinary	USA
2004	⁺Chi and Shan	Standalone courses offered to students on product design to develop entrepreneurship	Student responses recorded in quantitative evaluation	Mechanical engineering	Taiwan
2005	⁺Nelms et al.	Problem solving videos through an instructional aid used	Statistics on how often the videos were accessed	Electrical and computer engineering	USA
2005	Shuman et al.	Teamwork, communication, understanding ethics through considered integration.	Self-assessment and observation	Generic	USA
2005	⁺Suckarieh and Krupar	Teamwork and leadership through community service education	Informal comments from students at the end of the project.	Engineering and technology	USA
2006	⁺Bermúdez and Stanfill	Technology ventures program used to enhance entrepreneurship	Observations (achievement of outcomes)	Product design engineering	USA
2006	Crawford et al.,	Specific entrepreneurship program developed and implemented	Informal evaluation through student performance	Chemical engineering	The Netherlands
2006	Davidovitch et al.	Simulation-based learning to support development of project management	Performance indices used with experimental and control groups	Industrial engineering	Israel
2006	⁺Dekoninck	Introductory course to develop entrepreneurship though product design	Student surveys and verbal comments	Mechanical engineering	UK
2006	Grant and Dickson	Teamwork, communication, problem solving, self-learning and information technology through integration.	Student survey	Chemical	UK
2006	⁺Missingham	Integrative communication skills course – scaffolded learning approach	Students complete assessment and needs survey.	Generic	Australia
2006	Pascail	Professional competency through industrial opportunities	Observation	Generic	France
2007	⁺Kedrowicz and Nelson	Collaborative, innovative approach to teamwork e.g. integration of role-play	Student responses through surveys	Mult-disciplinary	USA
2007	Kumar and Hsiao	Leadership through PBL and service learning	Case study observation and student feedback	Generic	USA
2008	Bourn and Neal	Project management, social responsibility and entrepreneurship through specific program (global)	Observation	Generic	UK
2008	Lehmann et al.	Sustainable development and teamwork through a problem-orientated learning and PBL approach	Student assessment	Generic	Denmark
2008	Paretti	Communication in capstone design (as a case study)	Observation of staff-student interactions	Student surveys, observations and interviews	USA
2008	Riley et al.	Embedding leadership development into curriculum	Observation and informal student feedback	Construction engineering	USA
2008	Wilmot	Calibrated peer review (CPR) to help develop communication skills (videos and presentations)	Evaluation of outputs	Generic	USA
2009	⁺Eichenholtz and Marcellino	Blended learning course to develop leadership	Data collected online through ICT tools	Computer science and engineering	USA
2009	Farr and Brazil	Leadership as part of a career-development intervention	Observation	Generic	USA
2009	⁺Mesquita et al.	Teamwork and communication through an integrated master’s course (workshops)	Students completed a series of tasks to demonstrate learning/development.	Industrial and engineering management	Portugal
2010	⁺Mohan et al.	Problem solving, effective communication, teamwork through specific program	Pilot survey of students	Electrical and computer	USA
2009	⁺Russell et al.	Oral and visual communication through active learning	Evaluation rubrics to assess students’ development.	Generic	USA
2009	Siller et al.	Cross-cultural communication, teamwork, innovation and leadership through specific course modelled on industry	Case study observation	Generic	USA
2009	⁺Stevens et al.	Introduction of leadership honours program to curriculum	Completion of tasks throughout course – formal assessment measures	Computer science and engineering	USA
2010	⁺Andersson and Andersson	Professional skills through simulation	Student evaluation involving 14 students	Generic	Denmark and Sweden
2010	Takahara et al.	Communication training (focus on value and attitude)	Completion of student questionnaires	Generic	Japan
2010	⁺O’Shea et al.	Specific program (SPEED) to develop leadership skills (global projects)	Observation	Generic	Australia and USA
2010	⁺Requena-Carrión et al.	Integrated course using wikis and posters to enhance communication	End project presented and assessed	Engineering communication	Spain
2010	Yemini and Haddad	Supporting entrepreneurship through technology through bespoke program	Assessment - professional and academic skills, and peer assessment	Generic engineering	Israel
2011	⁺Cajander et al.	IT, communications, learning to learn through curriculum changes	Reflection based on threshold concepts	IT and computing	Sweden and UK
2011	⁺Fang	Project-based learning approach introduced to support students’ entrepreneurship skills	Likert-scale survey and open-response questionnaire	Manufacturing engineering	USA
2011	Takahara and Kajiwara	Communication through details and presentations (specific engineering ethics)	Assessment of final presentation	Electrical engineering	Japan
2011	Pulko and Parikh	Study skills (including communication and project management) through specific program.	Student survey	Electrical	UK
2011	Tomek	Bespoke course (NASA-inspired) to develop teamwork (global appreciation)	Informal discussion between students and tutor (reflections)	Civil engineering	USA
2012	Ahern et al.	Critical thinking through integrated model of skills development	Analysis of student assessment	Civil	Ireland
2008	Butun et al.	Teamwork through a PBL program design	Tutor evaluation, a submitted report and peer evaluation.	Electrical	Turkey
2012	⁺Goedert et al.	Making use of a virtual learning package (VICE) to support project management	Online survey assessment (self-assessment)	Construction engineering and management	USA
2012	⁺Ilea	E-entrepreneurship introduced to curricula via integrated approach	Observations on experiential learning	Electrical engineering	Romania
2012	Yokota et al.	Bolt-on program to develop problem-solving (societal problems)	Observation and final assessment	Generic	South Korea
2012	Lima et al.	Making use of a project management framework to enhance skills	Assessment of final projects	Generic	Portugal
2012	⁺Mathew et al.	Project HAWK: students setting up virtual companies to develop entrepreneurship	ICT tools employed to monitor student online activity	Generic	India
2012	Radharamanan and Juang	Entrepreneurship engineering program established within institution	Responses from students recorded and observation	Manufacturing engineering	USA
2012	⁺Shin	Critical thinking and teamwork through a training course	Informal comments from students	Technology/engineering	South Korea
2012	Simpson et al.	Bespoke program for leadership development (leaders of tomorrow)	Student feedback (pre and post surveys and testimonials)	Chemical engineering	Canada
2012	⁺Yang et al.	Making use of virtual labs to help students develop communication	Student survey carried out	Generic	China
2013	⁺Bayless	Enhancing leadership skills through practice interviews	Student surveys carried out	Mechanical engineering	USA
2001	Downing	Project management through integration into degree program.	Observation and survey	Engineering management	USA
2013	⁺Gideon and Buchal	Communication and teamwork developed through the use of collaborative software	Informal observations	Engineering design	USA and Canada
2013	Osgood	Enhancing communication through short design activities (instruction-led)	Reflective assessment through log books	Generic	Canada
2013	Seat et al.	‘minor’ course introduced to support students’ communication, teamwork and leadership skills	Assessment of change in performance of skills	Multi-disciplinary	USA
2013	Soares et al.	Entrepreneurship and innovation through an integrated project.	Student assessment	Generic	Portugal
2013	Zareba et al.	Problem solving and teamwork through design	Observation	Manufacturing	USA
2013	⁺Zhang et al.	Bolt-on teamwork course that integrated PDP with software engineering	Reflections through semi-structured interviews	Software	China
2014	⁺Deb et al.	Problem solving using interactive teaching and mobile devices	Use of classroom response systems and observation	Computer science and engineering	USA
2014	Holzer et al.	Inter-disciplinary, communication skills module introduced	Presentations and evaluation of ‘Speakup’ – app for students to comment anonymously	Generic	Switzerland
2014	⁺Lykke et al.	Creative problem solving through programming	Survey questionnaires with 229 students	Computer science	Denmark and Costa Rica
2014	Mayer et al.	Using game-based learning to support entrepreneurship	Pre-game and post-game questionnaires and in-game data	Generic	The Netherlands
2014	⁺Norman et al.	Using innovative learning activity to enhance leadership training	Student evaluation and observation	Management and engineering	Sweden
2014	⁺Ward and Baruah	Specific program to support entrepreneurial education	Interviews with 15 alumni graduates	Management engineering	UK
2014	⁺Warnick et al.	Leadership through an experiential learning approach	Observation on experiential learning and peer-to-peer feedback	Generic	USA
2015	⁺Babiceanu	Bolt-on software and systems class/workshop to enhance project management skills	End-of-semester student evaluation	Electrical and software engineering	USA
2015	De los Rios-Carmenado et al.	Project management through a PBL project.	Observation and assessment	Generic	Spain
2016	Huff et al.	Teamwork and social responsibility through service learning	Surveys (523) and interviews (27)	Generic	USA
2015	Khazaal	Using multimedia to support students problem-solving skills	Student surveys reported on	Electrical engineering (circuits)	Iraq
2015	Rottmann et al.	Engineering leadership by introducing pedagogical concepts into the curriculum.	Focus group interviews	Generic	Canada
2016	⁺Bayless	Guided leadership program (inc. pedagogy) introduced (capstone)	Student exit surveys and comments	Mechanical engineering	USA
2016	⁺Hurst et al.	Bespoke teamwork training through workshops	Observations and in-class self-assessment	Multi-disciplinary	USA
2016	Itani and Srour	Problem solving, oral communication and business acumen through technology	Student interviews	Generic	Lebanon
2016	⁺Jensen and Mosgaard	Teamwork (collaboration and peer engagement) through PBL	Student written commentary on teamwork	Electronic engineering and informatics	Denmark
2016	⁺Kanchanamala and Muppidi	Activity-based learning model integrated into course to support problem solving	Observation and student self-inquiry	Electronics/ electrical engineering	Spain
2016	Karim	Integration of entrepreneurship program into curriculum	Observations on experiential learning	Civil engineering	Malaysia
2016	Maresch et al.	Entrepreneurial intent through specific program	Student surveys	Generic	Austria
2016	⁺Marques	Teamwork through specific program	Assessment grades	Software	Chile
2016	Padma and Sridhar	Introductory mini project to develop entrepreneurship in students	Observations on experiential learning	Computer science and engineering	India
2016	⁺Valentine A. et al.	Creative problem solving in-class activities	Evaluation based on idea fluency and idea flexibility	Generic	Australia
2016	Yusof et al.	Co-operative problem solving through sustainable projects	Reflective journals and questionnaires	Generic	Malaysia
2017	⁺Barsanti et al.	Introduction of an engineering ethics and leadership program	Informal student comments recorded	Civil and electrical engineering	USA (army/navy)
2017	Bhatnagar and Badke-Schaub	Pop-up workshop on problem solving skills	Student surveys reported on	Generic	India
2017	⁺Costa	Puzzle-based learning to support students problem-solving skills	Analysis of secondary data on students	Generic	Canada
2017	Dol	Using game-based learning to help students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills	Feedback obtained from students	Computer science and engineering	India
2017	⁺Fang	Experimentation with concept mapping to enhance problem solving	Qualitative student analysis of student comments	Engineering mechanics	USA
2017	Hassan et al.	Integrating KEEN entrepreneurship program into curriculum	Observations on experiential learning	Generic	Malaysia
2017	Knight and Novoselich	Leadership through technology	Survey of 5076 students	Generic	USA
2009	Mustar	Specific (technology-based) course to develop entrepreneurship and innovation	Observation and student surveys	Generic	France
2017	Perry et al.	Using an organised innovation approach to develop leadership skills in students	Reflective observation on experiential learning	Generic	USA
2017	⁺Tsankova et al.	Use of the ‘Tesla’ software package to support project management skills	e-assessment through Moodle	Generic	Bulgaria
2018	Usher and Barak	Peer assessment through technology	Student feedback and assessment	Generic	Israel
2017	Walther et al.	Empathy through interdisciplinary dialogue	Observation and analysis	Generic	USA
2018	Arias et al.	PBL approach used to enhance entrepreneurship in students	Evaluation via student satisfaction survey and assessment of output	Computer engineering	Spain
2018	Azizan et al.	Co-operative learning using games	Student surveys	Chemical	Malaysia
2018	⁺Gagliardi et al.	Using collaborative problem solving (CPS) through a blended course	Student survey was reported on	Generic	Argentina
2018	Haupt and Webber-Youngman	Integrated problem-solving introduced to students	Observation of experiential learning activity	Mining engineering	South Africa
2018	Wren	Developing communication through situated learning projects (module)	Assessment of written reports.	Mechanical and industrial engineering	Sweden
2019	⁺Baruah et al.	Using on-line business platforms to foster entrepreneurialism	Assessment of online portfolio (self-reflection)	Electrical engineering	UK
2019	Beagon et al.	Teamwork and communication through PBL group project	Student surveys	Built environment	Ireland
2019	⁺Campbell and Chadha	Bespoke course to improve teamwork skills (bolt-on)	Student surveys at end of course and follow-up surveys	Chemical engineering	UK
2020	Carreres Talen et al.	Communication through the integration of specific course	Final written reports and assessment rubrics	Aeronautical engineering	Spain
2019	⁺Friesel and Dubikovsky	International and intercultural communication through design projects	Student perspective recorded and observation	Aeronautical engineering	Denmark and USA
2019	Simić et al.	Using modelling to enhance project management skills in students	Observation of experiential learning	Civil engineering	Serbia
2019	San-Valero et al.	Technical and non-verbal communication through student project	Student surveys	Chemical	Spain
2019	⁺Tokunaga et al.	Co-opetition used to foster entrepreneurialism (industrial partnership)	Assessment through examination and observation	Energy engineering	Belgium
2019	⁺Zhang et al.	Problem-solving skills through project execution planning (bolt-on)	Final project assessment	Civil engineering	China
2020	Cronhjort et al.	Developing leadership skills through specialist education program	Respondent surveys carried out	Computer science engineering	Sweden
2020	Morell	Specific program to enhance leadership skills training	360-degree assessment and feedback	Generic	China
2020	Neumeyer and Correia Santos	Makerspacers used as technique for supporting entrepreneurship	Rubrics for judges to assess project	Generic	USA

Snowballing was also found to be an effective method as search engines have been found to miss key references as the topic is broad and often not reported on using traditional methods. The reference list of particular studies and the ‘cited by’ function in Google Scholar was used to establish whether other studies ought to be accessed that may fulfil the inclusion criteria. In this way, both forward snowballing (identifying individuals who cited work) and backwards snowballing (identifying earlier work from reference lists) were applied (Wohlin, 2014). The study was either filed or rejected on the basis of the inclusion criteria being met.

The review schedule, provided as Figure 1, denotes the search terms we referred to in conducting this scoping review. In conducting the search via the Google Scholar search engine, exact phraseology was used in the search string to ensure the data search was manageable and as concise as possible. For example, in searching for sources related to communication skills in engineering education – using the advanced search function – all the words ‘communication skills in engineering education’ needed to appear in the title. Similarly, an advanced search was used in SCOPUS whereby the paper title was denoted as the source of interest, with use made of exact phraseology, e.g. ‘communication AND skills AND in AND engineering AND education’. The results obtained from SCOPUS were smaller than those obtained from Google Scholar with the following number of sources, related to each of the 6 skills, being attributed to SCOPUS: communication (10), teamwork (1), leadership (3), problem solving (5), project management (5) and entrepreneurship (0). The additional number of sources obtained from the initial search we conducted were attributed to Google Scholar; the combined total from both sources is denoted by * in Figure 1. The search was exhaustive once all the search string terms were applied, but also needed to be pertinent – hence the need for exact terminology in the first place.

Figure 1. Schematic to identify papers included for scoping review, as adapted from PRISMA guidelines (McKenzie et al. 2020). *Exact words³: communication (37), teamwork (16), leadership (31), problem solving (23), project management (19), entrepreneurship (46). **using citations from papers and references of papers to locate other papers. Includes a search in conference proceedings (e.g., ASEE and IEEE).

A diagrammatic representation of the review schedule is provided as Figure 1 in this paper:

Data were analysed by maintaining and constantly referring to an article matrix, which eventually took the form of tabulated notes (Table 2). As our research questions for this literature review were based around establishing how the skills’ focus had shifted historically, and the strategies used to evidence development, the matrix itself underwent several revisions to ensure the nature of its construction helped us answer our research questions. For example, chronological ordering in the matrix allowed for comparisons to be made across the four decades in terms of shifting skill priorities, teaching strategies, and reporting strategies used to evidence the development of skills. The matrix (Table 2) provides a summary of all the studies that feature in the literature review, and which met the inclusion criteria of the study. Tabulation served as a useful means through which all study records were managed, with Table 2 containing details of the following: year of study, authors, skills developed and teaching strategy, means of reporting student response, specific engineering discipline, and country of study. Through a further critical analysis of the studies, additional and related key themes were identified. These are referred to in the studies and are drawn upon in relation to skills development in engineering education (for example the assessment of skills, and employer engagement in developing skills). Where appropriate, these broader themes have been mentioned as they serve to support the contextualisation of this narrative.

Methodological limitations.

We acknowledge that there are gaps in the scoping review, which serves as a useful snapshot of broad skills development in engineering, but a snapshot none-the-less. The field of investigation is niche, but extensive at the same time and some valuable studies would have mistakenly been overlooked. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied as strictly as possible. This was followed by a careful reading and re-reading of the studies (by a second researcher) in efforts to ensure that both the quantity and quality of studies included was sufficient for this review.

Moreover, we recognise that as British researchers, we have an extensive knowledge base and understanding of the UK education system which inadvertently would have influenced our initial questions and thoughts on this study, and the ensuing research direction of this review. Relatedly, and as can be denoted from the citations themselves, the findings are skewed towards studies from Anglophilic countries and contexts due to the number of studies that were published and which fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Consequently, we acknowledge a bias in representation, but hopefully this article still proves valuable as a place of learning, dissemination, sharing and encouragement for others.

Review findings: Skills and their associated taught strategies from 1980 to 2020

According to Peterson et al. (2017) ‘the end product of a scoping review is typically a narrative presentation, with minimal or limited statistical information. The intent is to synthesize the research in the topical area, by mapping or articulating what is known about key concepts, derived from an array of sources …’ (p. 13). Hence, in this section a brief synopsis of the studies is provided and presented in tabular form (Table 3). Table 3 briefly describes the main area of focus of some of the papers which informed this study, as well as those which enabled us to contextualise professional skills development in engineering education. The summarised appraisal represented in Table 3 has been sectioned by decade to best reflect the fact that this review attempts to demonstrate shifts over a 40-year time period.

Table 3. A synopsis of the papers and summary of skills development presented as a broad chronological narrative.

Decade	Area of focus	Authors
1980–1989	A perceived lack of innovation in teaching for professional skills development	Petty, 1983; Tomkins, 1980
	Main skills being developed were managerial skills, problem solving and technical communication	Levy & Dawkins, 1989; Felder, 1987; Cawley, 1989; Nutman, 1987
	Arguments made that problem solving ought to be more creative within the classroom itself, although students exercised resistance	Felder, 1987
	Curriculums were considered too full to accommodate effective skills development to take place	Beder, 1989
	New ways of thinking about teaching were required to capture more holistic skills development	Cawley, 1989
	Teamworking was prioritised through osmosis in multi-disciplinary projects. Partnering with industrial experts to assess professional team skills was considered.	Thamhain & Wilmeon, 1987; Levy & Dawkins, 1989; Ellis & Taraman, 1989
	Leadership skills were less of a concern; the expertise was not in place to teach this skill	Young, 1987
	Career planning became more evident – from engineering to engineering management	Souder, 1983; Spicer, 1983; Levy & Dawkins, 1989
	Very little progress was being made on the development of communication skills in the UK, although the situation was more advanced in the USA and Australia	Bradshaw, 1985; Railton, 1986; Bakos 1986; Coney & Ramey 1984
	Engineering departments teamed up with skills specialists to deliver short bolt-on courses, although students found this problematic due to the lack of disciplinary expertise	Railton, 1986; Nutman, 1987
	Entrepreneurship was barely report upon	McMullan & Long, 1987
	Problem solving was developed through occasional programs which were not readily accepted into the curriculum	Brandt & Sell, 1986; Felder, 1987
	Design projects were presumed to be effective points in the curriculum where skills were developed	Thamhain & Wilemon, 1987; Marshall, 1988
	Some work was fairly pioneering e.g. cognitive apprenticeships, reflection, co-operative learning and problem-based learning (PBL, but failed to fit traditional ideals of engineering education	Smith, 1988
1990–1999	Certain skills were taught as stand-alone components e.g. creative problem solving, technical communication, leadership and ethics	Blicblau & Steiner, 1998; Richards, 1998; Hendricks & Pappas, 1996; Burton et al., 1996; Aldridge, 1994; Lonsdale et al., 1995
	Problem solving became more prominent during this time	Miller & Olds, 1994; Grabau, 1998
	Engineering graduates started being recruited into finance and management meaning there was a need to develop managerial and project-based skills	Beder, 1998; McCahon & Lavelle, 1998; Odom et al., 1999
	Institute of Engineers Australia published a report calling for more creative problem solving and for engineers to understand the holistic consequences of their work	IEAUST, 1996
	Open-book exams and reflection were explored as appropriate assessment tools for creativity	Baillie & Walker, 1998
	Participation and experiential learning became more important methods of skills development	Chapman & Martin, 1996
	Skills themselves become more nuanced and specific e.g. negotiation, active listening, communication of engineering design (communication)	Connelly & Middleton, 1996; Barchilon, 1996
	Students were provided with greater opportunities to develop problem-solving skills cooperatively in multi-disciplinary settings	McCahon & Lavelle, 1998
	Capstone programmes were administered in the USA, with emphases on communication, problem solving and teamwork	Quinn, 1993; Miller & Olds, 1994
	Interaction skills e.g. exchanging ideas and managing conflict become part of the curriculum – assessed through observation	Seat & Lord, 1998
	Resistance from students to developing communication, although more creative methods used to engage students in the process e.g. design of multi-media	Baren & Watson, 1993; Nguyen, 1998; Vest et al., 1995
	The difficulty of assessing professional skills led to a ‘attendance equals assessment’ culture	Aldridge, 1994; Baillie & Walker, 1998; Seat & Lord, 1998
	Self-assessment of skills proved especially difficult for students who felt unqualified to make judgements of their peers	Reeves et al., 1996
	Flexible learning through technology was made more possible for professional training purposes	Ferguson, 1998
	Dearing Report (UK Government White Paper) highlighted the importance for graduates to have certain key professional skills including lifelong learning and computer literacy	NCIHE, 1997
2000–2009	Practitioners were beginning to query whether there were more sophisticated strategies available to teach skills	Bourn & Neal, 2008
	The use of inventories as a self-assessment tool became more widely used	Woods et al., 2000; Riemer, 2001; Missingham, 2006
	Leitch Report (UK Government White Paper) emphasised need for world-class skills taking students seamlessly from education into employment	Leitch, 2006
	Embedding skills into the curriculum, innovative partnerships with employers and extra-curricular learning formed some of the ways skills could be taught	Bourn & Neal, 2008; Sumsion & Goodfellow 2004
	Funding available to identify and disseminate good practices for skills development in engineering	TRANSEND, 2000
	Communication was considered more broadly – mandating cross-cultural experience and foreign language proficiency	Gilleard & Gilleard, 2002
	ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) engineering criteria 2000, and Washington Accord emphasised the preparation of graduates’ skills in the USA, although problems still existed in exposing students to working in multi-disciplinary teams	ABET, 2000; Washington Accord; Coe, 2006
	Greater strides were made to include lifelong learning as a professional skill	Shuman et al., 2005
	The general approach to educating students around skills was considered ad-hoc and not holistic	Markes, 2006
	Resistance from students continued to be an issue along with creating space in the curriculum	Felder & Brent, 2004
	Further awareness of technology and how it could be better used to facilitate skills development	Menzies & Paradi, 2002; Braz et al., 2003
	Situated learning offered through industrial partnerships became a key mechanism through which students developed their professional capabilities and skills	Hissey, 2000; Pascail, 2006; Nair et al., 2009; Siller et al., 2009
	Work experience was a key factor in helping students develop necessary skills for industry	Grant & Dickson, 2006
	Project-centred curriculums were considered good ways to encapsulate skills development	Cameron, 2004; Lehmann et al., 2008
	Reflection was considered a meaningful way in which professional skills could be developed	Vavreck, 2002; Shuman et al., 2005
	ABET learning outcomes could be developed through reflective portfolio	Williams, 2002
	Self-reflection was considered an important strategy through which students internalise their skills development	Pascail, 2006; Chadha, 2006
	Engineering programmes began cultivating leadership training – key professional skill for career progression	Farr & Brazil, 2009
	Engineering students need to have a good grasp of global issues and how to respond to them	Mohan, 2010
	Accreditation and/or certification of skills under the broad umbrella of ethics and leadership, and delivered via workshops were offered	Siller et al., 2009
	Professional development institutes within universities became responsible for developing certain skills e.g. business acumen, marketing skills	Hissey, 2000
2010–2020	Different opportunities for skills development existed outside of the curriculum	Mathew et al., 2012; Huff et al., 2016; Yusof et al., 2016
	Graduate attributes became a more utilised measure of graduate attainment in terms of skills and capabilities	Cajander et al., 2011
	In the UK self-evaluation of professional development became more normalised	HEAR assessment
	There were calls for skills to be more streamlined with cross-over between study skills and professional skills	Pulko & Parikh, 2011; Downing, 2001
	Cross-over skills referred to included critical thinking, effective communication, project management and problem solving	Ahern et al., 2012; Zareba et al., 2013; Marques, 2016
	Facilitation rather than teaching and interactive models of delivery were considered key to developing skills	Jaeger & Adair, 2015
	PBL was used to help students develop their management, teamwork and communication skills	Beagon et al., 2019
	Operational equipment e.g. pilot plants provided a useful platform for students to develop professional skills through simulation and role play	Vega & Navarrette, 2019
	Following in the footsteps of technology entrepreneurs, engineering students increasingly nurtured their entrepreneurial intent	Maresch et al., 2016
	Arguments were made that entrepreneurship and innovation could be better accommodated in the curriculum	Soares et al., 2013
	ABET was considered a great driver of skills development with entrepreneurship in particular bridging a divide between creative problem solving, business acumen and technology	Itani & Stour, 2016
	More creative strategies were used to develop skills e.g. board games to teach teamwork, and LEGO Mindstorms to develop communication – Denmark/Costa Rica and Malaysia	Lykke et al., 2014; Azizan et al., 2018
	Service learning was considered a beneficial space to encourage the development of professional skills alongside other attributes e.g. empathy, compassionate leadership	Duffy et al., 2000; Huff et al., 2016; Walther et al., 2017
	Leadership became a more explicitly recognised and developed skill in engineering practice	Warnick et al., 2014; Simpson et al., 2012; Bayless, 2013; Morell, 2020
	Educational models of engineering leadership were produced and used	Rottmann et al., 2015
	Further advances were made in the use of technology for developing skills	Mayer et al., 2014; Babiceanu, 2015; Azizan et al., 2018; Knight & Novoselich, 2017
	Role play and simulation were used to integrate learning of skills with knowledge	Andersson & Andersson, 2010
	A greater number of international studies were reported on e.g. from South Africa, Sweden and China enabling better cultural learning	Haupt and Webber Youngman, 2018; Wren, 2018; Zhang et al., 2019
	Sustainable development projects and experiential learning were used as a way to provide a more holistic education on professional skills	Usher & Barak, 2018

The trends from the review

Reviewing our initial research questions of establishing how the 6 professional skills we have focused on have evolved over 40 years and how these have been effectively developed, some meaningful trends have emerged from reviewing the literature. To summarise some of these findings through quantitative analysis – and in response to the first of our research questions – Figure 2 reveals the number of papers that cite at least one of the professional skills that were considered in this study (mostly more than one are mentioned). All 6 skills become more prominent as a focus of development over the 40-year period – the largest incremental changes are in entrepreneurship and problem solving, and the smallest in communication.

Figure 2. Graph depicting frequency of skills mentioned in each citation in the review.

In response to the second of our research questions on effective methods of developing these skills, Figure 3 reveals the most prominent strategies through which skills development occurred throughout the 40-year period. These were determined from performing a numerical count of the information in Table 2 – with specific courses and interactivity being the most dominant – although there is often a more ‘minor’ strategy employed also, especially in later years. More detailed information on all the strategies associated with particular skills development activity and recorded in this review can be located in Table 2.

Figure 3. Graph highlighting the most prominent strategies that have been employed to develop skills within the 40-year time period.

It is interesting to note the increase in the numbers of countries that are reporting on professional skills development activities, especially from the year 2000 onwards. Figure 4 highlights an increase in the number of countries (alongside the numbers of papers) that reported skills development among their engineering students. These countries include countries that are both developing and developed and encompasses every continent (as can be seen in more detail in Table 2).

Figure 4. Graph showing the number of papers and the number of representative countries according to decade.

Other aspects of note with respect to the review, are that conference papers are increasingly prominent in the reporting of skills development activity when compared with peer-reviewed journal papers, serving as an important hidden resource. Additionally, and somewhat relatedly, there was significant coverage of the assessment of skills and the obstacles and opportunities involved. We feel this finding is of interest to the engineering education community and therefore worth reporting on. A mapping has been created (Figure 5) of assessment-related aspects of skills development as identified by the citations. Figure 5 depicts how some of the prominent conceptual ideas associated with the assessment of skills development e.g. creative modes of assessment, could potentially be linked with one another. The main discussion points taken from the literature review and which comprise these central ideas are also provided in the mapping.

Figure 5. A mapping of aspects related to assessment of skills identified in the scoping review.

Discussion

Commentary on the main findings from the review

In this discussion section, we explore our findings in greater depth and detail. With respect to chronological changes over the 40-year time period, the appreciation of skills development as an area of interest and research, has grown and become more global than it was 40 years ago. In relation to this point, it seems that international collaborative skills development initiatives have resulted in a mutually beneficial education, in which cultural learning differences are respected. Similarly, teaching methods have evolved to help students develop skills holistically and concurrently, for example through technology and more sophisticated PBL. By sophisticated PBL we mean that students are provided with more integrated problems that expose them to other factors, for example environmental, economic, geographical, and political aspects, and may require some specialist skills e.g. programming. However, specific programs or courses are increasingly employed to enhance skills among students, especially among countries that are newly reporting on skills development. Among Anglophilic countries, there is a move towards students showcasing their skills, by taking up opportunities outside of their regular studies. As engineers develop their skills portfolio throughout their education, this review suggests that there is a more nuanced understanding of the main skills and the nature of their development. For example, communication as a skill area can be further delineated in terms of negotiation skills (Nguyen, 1998), active listening (Connelly & Middleton, 1996), technical communication (Lykke et al., 2014), cross-cultural communication (Siller, 2009), etc. with each being evaluated through a different evaluation tool. This pattern is similar for the additional skill areas.

Other points of interest are worth mentioning. Firstly, A thread running throughout the 40 years has been the importance of exposure to a professional environment as a means of truly developing students’ professional skill (often replicated through simulation, design projects, and PBL in academia). PBL in particular is considered an important space in which skills can be authentically integrated so are better combined with technical skills development (e.g. Butun et al. 2008; Mesquita et al., 2009). This form of integration serves a dual purpose in that the need for champions and experts has given way to more synthesised models of skills development that are integrated into the curriculum and ensure skills are perceived as important (Stolk & Martello, 2015). Secondly, and as alluded to within this narrative, engineering educators have become more creative with their modes of assessment over time to accommodate professional skills development, for example with the use of technology (Menzies & Paradi, 2002), and simulation (Andersson & Andersson, 2010). Finally, obstacles to skills development that have remained in place with us throughout the 40-year period include resistance from students and the resources and time commitment of educators (to varying degrees). Several papers highlighted the problematic nature of skills development, and this concern has not abated although has perhaps been better articulated and addressed over time (Cawley, 1989; Jaeger & Adair, 2015; Mohan et al., 2010; Young, 1987).

Identifying the skills

Perhaps unsurprisingly, this review highlights specific professional skills that have been reported upon for decades (for example teamwork, communication, project management), and others that have evolved or are newer. For example, being technologically proficient² featured alongside most of these specific skills, e.g. giving virtual presentations, especially in later decades (e.g. Bermúdez & Stanfill, 2006; Hassan et al., 2017; Holzer et al., 2014). Technological competence serves as a necessary skill for students to have acquired in its own right, with technology increasingly serving as a medium through which some skills are developed. Likewise, students are also expected to have acquired business acumen and to have some entrepreneurial ability; helpfully these skills are not seen as particularly soft, enabling engineering educators to integrate them into mainstream teaching. Essentially, it is proposed that the balance between technical (or core skills) and professional ones has shifted, and that there is greater mergence between the two as well as acceptability.

In selecting these six skills, it meant that others were excluded but which may have equally warranted attention. In hindsight, project management and leadership could have been merged as a skill set to highlight the more nuanced concept of leadership within engineering which often encompasses (project) management. Similarly, creative thinking and engineering judgement might have been useful to consider as they are often regarded as key foundational skills/capabilities that are necessary for engineering (Chadha & Hellgardt, 2023; Daly et al., 2014). Looking further ahead, other skills which were commented on in some of the papers, may become more prominent in years to come. For example, these may include the ability to sift through information (analysing it for relevancy or accuracy) (Braz et al., 2003), understanding ethics and sustainability (Yusof et al., 2016), working in virtual, multi-disciplinary teams, and compassionate (Hurst et al., 2016), and inclusive leadership (Morell, 2020). As the discipline of engineering is driven by changing social needs and problems identified by society, a continual shift in the prominent professional skills would be expected alongside adaptability. Working patterns and cultures have also changed so that skills now include elements of equality and diversity which will gradually become more significant (for example communication that accommodates cross-cultural communication).

Implications for practice and research

Insights on skills development are offered through this literature review, and from which limited implications can be drawn. Professional skills development is increasingly research-led and evidence-based, and its importance within the curricula augmented alongside the development of technical competencies. In terms of possibilities for further research and filling knowledge gaps, increasingly, studies are beginning to reflect international reach, but it would be valuable to know whether skills development initiatives are truly transferable to other contexts, bearing in mind that student populations are culturally homogenous in some parts of the world and multi-cultural in other parts. As an example, research on entrepreneurial education involving French and US-based students highlighted a concern that attitudes and perceptions towards entrepreneurship in the 2 countries was fundamentally different, and therefore, the educational environment for both contexts needed to be carefully considered alongside measures of success and failure (Carayannis et al., 2003).

Several unanswered questions present good opportunities for further research. For example, how might professional skills identified by engineers influence or be influenced by other disciplines, for example social science or humanities (essential to understanding the communities served by engineers)? The different ways of thinking that has been researched across disciplines often results in different skills sets (Entwistle, 2005), and there is interest in establishing how engineers might benefit from (or prove beneficial to) their contemporaries in other fields (Chan & Fong, 2018). For example Chan and Fong suggest that skills such as persuasion and negotiation are more important to business graduates than they are to engineering graduates. Other arguments have been made that skills are taught differently depending upon the disciplinary context (Boahin & Hofman, 2013), meaning that educators have to additionally consider alternative teaching strategies when merging disciplines.

With respect to the UK-based model in particular, Government White Papers increasingly dictate skills development in higher education; the ensuing recommendations direct institutional strategies and resources. Therefore, we need to establish a sensible and acceptable balance of responsibility between academia, industry and students themselves for developing these skills. The research suggests a need for synergy between academia and industry which has always been the case, but Government initiatives, require record-keeping by students on their skills-related achievements (for example through HEAR in the UK). How does this independence necessitated of students alter how skills development is governed or delivered? What is the position occupied by the careers service?

Another question we have grappled with is whether learning outcomes ought to be redesigned (emphasising specific skills), to ensure meaningful assessment activities are in place that capture skills development. Learning outcomes have been considered by accreditation bodies, e.g. by the IChemE and IMechE, but as was previously mentioned, the descriptors are loose. A more concrete reference is provided through the 4th edition of the Accreditation of Higher Education Programmes (AHEP4), published by the Engineering Council (2020) which addresses several areas of importance related to graduate engineering status. These include: engineering analysis, developing an awareness of contextual factors, lifelong learning, advanced problem solving, and effective communication and teamwork. Greater levels of detail are provided, but the onus is still on the higher education institutions to establish viable routes for ensuring these outcomes are adequately met. All too often, end-of-year exams assess student academic performance but should more evidence be available on the novel assessments that both test academic performance and develop skills? Rubrics are often employed, but these need to be periodically revisited by students and staff to discern development and progress (Al-Bahi et al., 2013). There needs to be a greater understanding of the curricular and extra-curricular activities students take up (for example part-time work), so they can identify and develop broad skills in relation to all these opportunities. As was the case 40 years ago, students still need to be intrinsically motivated and for skills development to be relevant. Even though these questions cannot be answered in this study, they are raised through this work as we consider skills development for the next 40 years.

Concluding remarks

By surfacing professional skills for engineering students in this way, a number of meaningful insights have been revealed. This work is helpful in that it amalgamates the literature and provides a more concrete analysis of what skills are being developed and how educators have done this effectively. This article serves as a useful repository for a subject area that is important in engineering education, but for which there are essentially no codes of conduct, standards or benchmarks. From this review, educators are able to locate examples meaningful to their own practice and hopefully use the information contained in this article to develop specific skills for engineering students within their own contexts without starting over. Evaluative methods for skills development are also surfaced for adaptation and use, enabling practitioners to borrow examples from others to demonstrate effectiveness within development, which is often difficult to do.

Furthermore, through this review, it is possible to verify how patterns in terms of skills development for engineering students are shifting, which skills are becoming more significant in engineering education, which development and evaluation strategies are more useful going forward etc. From this review, good practices and novel ideas can be identified, further adapted, and disseminated to different contexts and situations. Implications for both practice and research are given in the hope that we can move forward more purposefully, to appreciate the narrative on skills development activity in engineering and support our students in developing the professional skills that better equip them throughout their careers.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Deesha Chadha

Deesha Chadha is a Senior Strategic Teaching Fellow in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London. Prior to that she was the academic lead of two faculty development programmes at King's College London. She completed both her bachelor's degree in chemical engineering and her PhD in engineering education at the University of Surrey.

Jerry Y. Y. Heng

Jerry Y. Y. Heng is a Professor of Particle Science and the Director of Undergraduate Studies in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London. He obtained his bachelor's degree in chemical engineering from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and completed his doctoral work at Imperial College London.

Notes

1 The use of individual keywords such as teamwork, leadership, professional skills, skills development produced an unmanageable quantity of data so a specific search string was utilised instead.

2 Technological proficiency also means that some skills of the past might be considered tools in the current climate.

3 Followed by ‘… skills in engineering education’.