Evaluation of lean construction practices for improving construction project delivery. Case study of Bushenyi District, Uganda

Abstract

The research conducted in the Bushenyi District of Uganda focuses on evaluating lean construction practices to enhance the delivery of construction projects. Lean construction is aimed at improving efficiency, reducing waste and ultimately enhancing project outcomes. The study of lean construction practices in Bushenyi district offers insights applicable to similar rural regions, aiding economic growth. Bushenyi’s construction industry is vital to its economy, making efficient project delivery crucial for development. The research incorporates perspectives from Property Surveyors, Civil Engineers, Project Managers and Clients through an extensive survey, exploring lean construction’s impact on project delivery using Spearman’s correlation coefficient analysis. The study utilizes an extensive survey to comprehensively understand lean construction practices and their impact on project delivery in Bushenyi, gathering insights from diverse industry roles for a holistic perspective. Findings highlight the need to tailor strategies to professionals’ roles and experiences, emphasizing adaptable approaches to meet stakeholders’ diverse needs. The study identifies challenges hindering lean construction implementation, providing insights to enhance practices and improve project delivery. Enhancing project delivery efficiency through lean construction practices is crucial for sustainable growth in Bushenyi district. Efficient delivery ensures cost savings, timely completion and better infrastructure quality, fostering development and attracting investment in the region.

Keywords:

• Construction engineering
• estate management
• Spearman correlation
• Lean principles
• sustainable construction practices

Reviewing EDITOR:

• Montemurro Marco, Academic Editor, Arts et Métiers Sciences et Technologies, France

SUBJECTS:

• Civil, Environmental and Geotechnical Engineering
• Engineering Management
• Engineering Economics

1. Introduction

Construction projects worldwide have historically been confronted with various challenges, such as cost overruns, delays and quality issues. The need for more efficient and effective construction practices has led to the emergence of lean construction, which focuses on minimizing waste and maximizing value throughout the project’s lifecycle (Nwaki & Eze, 2020). Lean construction principles have gained traction in the global construction industry, and they offer a promising approach to address the prevailing issues in construction project delivery (Vrijhoef, 2020). In numerous countries worldwide, the construction industry is recognized as a crucial economic sector that significantly contributes to national revenue. However, compared to other industrial sectors, the growth of the construction industry is often perceived as slow and environmentally damaging (Hamzeh et al., 2021). Consequently, innovative policies focusing on enhancing construction productivity, adopting digital technologies, reforming labor laws, promoting sustainability and reducing carbon emissions are being implemented. These policies aim to address the challenges faced by the construction industry and pave the way for more sustainable and efficient practices, ultimately benefiting both the economy and the environment (Li et al., 2020; Mesa et al., 2019).

In the context of lean construction, waste encompasses any aspect of the construction process that does not add value to the final product, service or project. It is also any action that extends the length and expense of the manufacturing process without providing value (Sweis et al., 2021; Tzortzopoulos et al., 2020). This includes activities like producing more than necessary, waiting times, inefficient transportation methods, unnecessary processing steps, excessive inventory, unnecessary movement and defects (Koskela, 2020). The primary goal of lean construction is to identify and eliminate these wasteful practices to optimize operations, enhance productivity, reduce costs and achieve better project outcomes. By minimizing waste, lean construction aims to create a more efficient and effective construction process, ultimately delivering higher quality projects in a timely and cost-effective manner (Vrijhoef, 2020; Rosin et al., 2020).

The management concerns that plague Uganda’s building industry are many. Construction is seen as a waste-producing business that is bad for the economy and the environment (Khodeir & Othman, 2018). Appropriate project management tools help projects reach their quality and goal values. To address issues in the construction business, new management ideas and techniques have been implemented (Singh & Kumar, 2021). Lean construction represents a distinctive and innovative approach that distinguishes itself from traditional construction management methods, promising to introduce beneficial transformations in the sector (Tezel et al., 2018). This approach holds particular significance for Uganda and the broader East African region, where the construction industry plays a pivotal role in economic development and infrastructure enhancement (Ssali et al., 2022; Alinaitwe, 2009). The adoption of lean techniques in the construction industry draws parallels with the Toyota Production System (TPS) in the manufacturing sector developed in Japan in the 1950s (Koskela, 1992). Both approaches emphasize the elimination of waste, continuous improvement and efficient resource utilization to enhance productivity and quality. While TPS originated in manufacturing, lean principles have been adapted to suit the unique challenges of construction projects (Gao & Low, 2014). Common elements include value stream mapping, just-in-time production, visual management and empowering frontline workers to identify and solve problems. By applying lean principles, construction firms aim to streamline processes, reduce lead times, minimize costs and enhance overall project outcomes, reflecting the objectives of TPS in the production industry (Santorella, 2017).

Lean construction is a novel approach to project management for the building industry that strives to minimize material waste and maximize process value. The phrase ‘lean construction’ first emerged in 1992 (Lodgaard et al., 2016). Many manufacturing-related ideas, such as applying Lean construction, were rejected by developers in the construction industry (Singh & Kumar, 2020). The difficulties facing the construction industry highlight the need of using lean principles in building projects (Li et al., 2019). This study is significant because it adds to the body of knowledge about lean tools and advantages by ranking the advantages of using lean construction projects and demonstrating how these advantages have a positive impact on the social, economic and environmental facets of the building sector. This study will inspire project participants to research, learn, use and be aware of lean tools (Sepasgozar et al., 2020). The study on the evaluation of Lean construction Practices in Bushenyi District, Uganda, offers valuable insights but also has limitations. These include restricted generalizability beyond the region, potential sample size and representativeness issues, methodological constraints, lack of longitudinal data and insufficient consideration of external factors. Addressing these limitations can enhance the study’s validity and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in lean construction practices.

The study aims to assess the effectiveness of lean construction practices in improving construction project delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda. This research seeks to perform a comprehensive evaluation of how the adoption of lean construction practices can influence the process of delivering construction projects in Bushenyi District. This evaluation will determine the practicality and effectiveness of Lean methodologies in enhancing the delivery of construction projects (Mossman et al., 2013; Akinradewo et al., 2018). Furthermore, the study will deeply explore the fundamental principles and philosophies that serve as the bedrock of lean construction. This involves a thorough examination of established Lean concepts that have demonstrated success in construction projects on a global scale. Additionally, a critical appraisal of the current methods and protocols employed in the delivery of construction projects in Bushenyi District will be conducted to identify the inherent strengths and weaknesses within the existing practices. The introduction of Lean practices is intended to streamline construction processes, minimize wastage and ensure that projects are executed with greater efficiency and improved outcomes (Shaqour, 2022).

2. Literature review

2.1. Lean theories and description

Lean theories encompass a set of principles and practices aimed at maximizing value while minimizing waste in various processes, originally developed within the context of manufacturing but now applied across industries (Uusitalo & Lavikka, 2021). At its core, lean thinking seeks to deliver more value to customers with fewer resources, thereby improving efficiency, quality and overall performance. Quality and performance results produced by a particular process are the primary considerations of lean manufacturing (Lessing & Brege, 2018; Dave & Sacks, 2020). Lean is a methodology that seeks to cut waste in order to increase production rate in accordance with client demands, according to National Institute of Standard and Technology Manufacturing Extension Partnership Lean Network (NISTMEPLN) and the TPS was the first to use lean ideas in industrial production (Ballard, 2020).

Numerous industrial firms recognize that solely implementing lean methodologies will not ensure enduring development. The effectiveness of the lean system hinges on the vitality and intellect contributed by individuals. People influence leadership styles, organizational memory, learning and culture, encompassing language, customs, symbols and beliefs (Tommelein, 2015; El-Gohary & Aziz, 2014). Toyota has a strong culture that is dependent on sharing these elements. Enhancing culture promotes the fundamentals of leadership. Toyota believes that a good process should be established by concepts rather than technology, and then it should be enhanced by people (Liker & Morgan, 2006). Lean thinking entails identifying the stated value for the product, the flow of value, creating a product flow, striving for excellence, using a customized product, delivering goods in real-time and closing stores when they are empty. While lean manufacturing entails alignment, synchronization, product withdrawal, one-piece flow, transparency and stopping the line (Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi, 2017; Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi, El Hammoumi, 2017). In order to improve decision-making, lean production strives to determine the value of goods, continuously manage the manufacturing process flow, effectively follow-up products while being used by customers (Li et al., 2017; Araújo et al., 2022). Waste reduction, time value, a values-based approach, improvements, quality management and flexibility toward necessary change are just a few of the objectives of the lean methodology. Many businesses made efforts to lower manufacturing costs in an effort to keep up with the rising global competition. Lean concepts have been used by thousands of businesses globally to improve performance (Sbiti et al., 2021).

Several research has looked at lean techniques, advantages, challenges and implementation success factors. Despite this, firms generally struggle to implement lean strategies because they prioritize short-term goals (Igwe et al., 2020). By doing thorough planning, making informed decisions and having access to data, non-value-adding tasks may be avoided (Mesa et al., 2019). Many businesses implemented a Lean building technique that might help them add the most value. If extensively used, lean concepts, which have been successfully adopted in the industrial sector, can eliminate waste in the building business (Aslam et al., 2021). An innovative project delivery method called Integrated Project Delivery, or IPD, encourages high efficiency by providing precise information and cutting-edge technology in a cooperative setting where risks are shared to reduce cost, increase quality and shorten project completion times (Viana et al., 2020).

Lean project delivery is considered with ongoing learning and development, incorporating systems, demand-based thinking, sharing and open, etc. (Caldera et al., 2018). Implementing lean construction has various benefits for the construction management process and tools (Saieg et al., 2018; Neve & Wandahl, 2018; Bajjou & Chafi, 2018). According to research conducted in Bangladesh, project stakeholders are aware of the lean construction approach and are comfortable with it, but they do not use it. They think lean construction has beneficial effects on cost, safety, quality and the environment. Environment barriers, labor hurdles, material barriers and external barriers were among the many obstacles that prevent the adoption of lean construction techniques (Marodin & Saurin, 2015; Miron et al., 2015). Even though several studies have shown that applying Lean principles to the construction industry has significant advantages, Lean techniques have been adopted insufficiently and ineffectively around the globe. According to slowing information flow and poor project visualization, lean tool adoption in the early stages of building projects is problematic (Xing et al., 2021; Emuze, 2017).

2.2. Lean tools

The techniques for implementing Lean thinking in industry and construction were applied by experts. These tools have the similar goals of enhancing quality, boosting safety, cutting down on project time and effort and conserving resources (Choomlucksana et al., 2015). The aforementioned goals may be attained by providing sufficient documentation to assure sustainability, making appropriate use of prior knowledge to improve problem-prediction and problem-solving skills, extending the lifespan of a product or structure, cutting waste and increasing the value of resource utilization (Chiarini & Chiarini, 2013). Lean tools often concentrate on using lessons learned from the past to address present issues and conserve resources for the future. Numerous research has covered and described these tools. Table 1 displays a few lean strategies and tools that were taken from earlier studies.

Table 1. Lean tools (definitions and objectives obtained from previous studies).

Tool code	Lean tools	Definition	Objectives	Ref.
T1	Prefabrication	Prefabricated elements (offsite production).	Boost safety and quality	Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi (2017), Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi, El Hammoumi (2017)
T2	Calibration	Success is the result of consistent, repeated procedures.	Limit your time and effort.	Tezel et al. (2018)
T3	The 5S process	Employing the same tools, classifying, arranging, illuminating, controlling, and repeating the process.	Maintain equipment, supplies, and tools while saving time.	Caldera et al. (2018)
T4	Five why	A method for addressing problems.	Delineating cause and effect	Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi (2017) Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi, El Hammoumi (2017)
T5	VSM	Tool for material flow mapping using value stream mapping.	Minimizing time wastage and keeping an appropriate inventory	Miron et al. (2015)
T6	TPM	Total productivity upkeep maintenance in advance.	Upsurge the time of operation	Neve and Wandahl (2018)
T7	LPS	The last planner system is a workflow construction method.	Reducing waste, improving forecast, and boosting output	Schimanski et al. (2020)
T8	JIT	Maintaining material flow to maintain working (Just in Time).	Enhance inventory	Marodin and Saurin (2015)
T9	Kaizen	Continuous improvement assesses process efficiency, timing, availability and demand.	Operation gages	Caldera et al. (2018)
T10	TVD (Target value design)	Constrained design and target costing adaptation from manufacturing product development. Cost stability when a product develops.	Fostering value	Kim and Alseadi (2021); Ballard (2012); Zimina et al. (2012)
T11	Error proofing (Poka-Yoke)	Mechatronic tool.	Circumventing errors, improving quality and enhancing safety	Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi (2017), Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi, El Hammoumi (2017)
T12	TAKT	Coordinates production to match customer demand, ensuring tasks are completed steadily to meet output requirements.	Aligning production with demand, ensuring workflow, and optimizing efficiency for targets.	Binninger et al. (2017)
T13	Gemba walks	Gemba walks identify improvement opportunities by observing frontline staff.	Observe, understand and identify improvement opportunities.	(Romero et al., 2020)
T14	Hoshin management	Aligns organizational goals with plans and metrics, fostering collaboration.	Associate organizational goals with actionable plans.	Díez and Meré (2016)
T15	Total Quality Management (TQM)	A holistic method focusing on continuous improvement and enhancing overall performance.	Continuous quality improvement and customer satisfaction.	Ahmed et al. (2021)

2.3. Benefits of lean construction

Lean construction is a project management and building methodology that’s gained popularity in the construction industry for its remarkable benefits. Inspired by lean manufacturing principles, it revolves around one central theme: the elimination of waste in all forms, whether it’s in labor, materials or time (Huo & Boxall, 2018). This waste-reduction focus results in several substantial advantages. It improves efficiency by streamlining workflows and reducing downtime and wasteful resource utilization. Consequently, projects are completed faster and more productively, potentially meeting tight deadlines. Additionally, lean construction enhances project quality by concentrating on refining processes, which, in turn, leads to fewer mistakes, lower rework costs and higher customer satisfaction (Obianyo et al., 2022; Francis & Thomas, 2020).

Collaboration is another key facet of lean construction. It encourages effective communication and cooperation among all project stakeholders, from owners and designers to contractors and subcontractors. This collaboration not only reduces conflicts but also cultivates a team-oriented mindset that is critical for project success (Smith A, 2015; Obianyo et al., 2023). Furthermore, lean practices directly lead to cost reductions, as the elimination of waste and the increased efficiency can keep projects within budget or even under it. Faster project delivery is another tangible benefit, as lean methods streamline operations and reduce delays, making them invaluable when there’s a strict deadline to meet (Al-Aomar, 2012). Lean construction also promotes better risk management through early issue identification and mitigation, lowering the chances of costly construction-related disruptions. Client satisfaction is heightened by lean practices, delivering projects on time, with better quality and lower costs. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of repeat business and referrals, adding to the firm’s reputation (Rekha et al., 2017; Ujong et al., 2022). Furthermore, lean construction aligns with sustainability goals, as it frequently employs eco-friendly practices to reduce energy and material waste, decreasing the environmental impact of construction projects. Continuous improvement is a core principle of lean construction, encouraging teams to continually assess and fine-tune their processes for better long-term outcomes (Dehdasht et al., 2020).

Indeed, while lean construction methodologies offer various advantages in terms of efficiency, productivity and waste reduction, there is a growing body of research that questions the extent of these benefits, particularly concerning the health and safety of workers (Abu Aisheh et al., 2022). This opposition stems from several valid points that highlight potential drawbacks and risks associated with lean practices. First, some research findings argue that lean construction’s emphasis on efficiency and productivity may lead to increased workloads and pressure on workers to meet tight deadlines (Abu Aisheh et al., 2022; Nicholas, 2016). This can result in excessive stress, fatigue and burnout among employees, ultimately compromising their health and safety. Additionally, the relentless pursuit of efficiency may encourage workers to cut corners or bypass safety protocols to meet targets, increasing the risk of accidents and injuries on construction sites (Marhani et al., 2012).

Furthermore, the implementation of lean practices, such as just-in-time production and minimal inventory may exacerbate safety concerns by reducing the buffer time and resources available for addressing unforeseen hazards or emergencies. Inadequate training and supervision in lean environments can also contribute to unsafe working conditions, as workers may lack the necessary skills or guidance to perform their tasks safely (Enshassi et al., 2019; Kong et al., 2018). Moreover, the hierarchical nature of traditional construction management often limits workers’ involvement in decision-making processes related to health and safety. Lean construction, with its emphasis on empowering frontline workers and fostering a culture of continuous improvement, presents an opportunity to address these issues by involving workers in safety planning, hazard identification, and risk mitigation efforts (Attouri et al., 2022). Overall, while lean construction holds promise for improving efficiency and reducing waste, it is essential to acknowledge and address the potential health and safety implications associated with its implementation. By prioritizing worker well-being, providing adequate training and support, and fostering a collaborative approach to safety management, construction organizations can mitigate risks and create safer working environments in lean construction projects (Aziz & Abdel-Hakam, 2016).

In the realm of safety, lean construction also plays a crucial role. By recognizing potential hazards and incorporating safety measures into project designs, this approach can substantially enhance safety records (Abu Aisheh et al., 2022). Businesses that employ lean construction techniques often gain a competitive edge over their rivals. This advantage stems from their ability to provide better value to clients and complete projects more swiftly (Ahmed et al., 2021). In addition, lean concepts often empower employees to take ownership of their work, leading to process improvements and creating a more engaged workforce. In summary, lean construction offers a comprehensive and holistic approach to construction management, which encompasses a range of benefits that enhance project quality, efficiency and client satisfaction while also promoting sustainability, safety and a competitive edge in the industry (Simu & Lidelöw, 2019).

3. Methodology

The methodology used to assess lean construction practices in improving construction project delivery in the Bushenyi District, Uganda, involved a comprehensive analysis of various construction projects in the area, with a particular focus on the adoption of lean principles and their impact on project performance (Kifokeris, 2021). This research employed a mixed-methods approach, combining surveys, interviews and document analysis to collect data. By utilizing these methods, the study aimed to evaluate how lean construction practices influence project delivery in the district (Bashir et al., 2011). Case studies of real construction projects were conducted to provide a practical understanding of lean implementation with the study area shown in Figure 1. Ethical guidelines were adhered to throughout the research process, and informed consent was obtained from participants (Ssali et al., 2022). The findings were presented using tables, charts and graphs to facilitate comprehension and analysis. Additionally, the study offered recommendations and conclusions concerning lean construction practices, considering factors, such as limitations, scope, timeline and budget constraints within the methodology (Creswell, 2003).

Figure 1. Study area map.

The authors conducted a systematic literature review as part of the research method to establish the theoretical background of the study. The review focused on gathering relevant literature related to lean construction practices, project delivery improvement and sustainable construction (Singh & Kumar, 2020). The concepts and units of analysis included in the review may have encompassed various aspects of lean principles, construction project management and sustainability in the context of construction projects. The inclusion criteria for cited studies likely involved relevance to the research topic, publication within a specified timeframe and reliability of the source (Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi, 2017; Bajjou, Chafi, En-Nadi, El Hammoumi, 2017; Kifokeris & Tezel, 2023). Exclusion criteria may have involved studies unrelated to lean construction or not meeting the quality standards. The results derived from the literature review were likely synthesized through a combination of deduction, induction and abduction, aiming to draw insights and develop hypotheses based on existing knowledge in the field (Francis & Thomas, 2020).

3.1. Data collection instrument

The study on evaluation of lean construction practices for improving construction project delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda will employ a variety of data collection instruments to comprehensively assess the adoption and impact of lean construction practices. These instruments include questionnaires for construction stakeholders, structured interviews with key project personnel, document analysis of project-related documents, on-site observations and photographic documentation (Alinaitwe, 2009). These instruments will facilitate the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data to evaluate the application and effectiveness of lean construction practices in real-world scenarios. By obtaining insights from various stakeholders and analyzing project documents and performance records, the study aims to provide a detailed assessment of how lean practices influence construction project delivery in Bushenyi District (Alawi et al., 2023).

3.2. Sampling technique

Sampling methods play a vital role in ensuring that collected data is both representative and reliable. The choice of data collection tools and sampling methods is customized to align with the precise research goals and the intended study group. These tools are meticulously structured to capture a wide range of quantitative and qualitative data, enabling a thorough examination of the sustainability challenges associated with property valuation in the realm of sustainable construction. In the study on the evaluation of lean construction practices for Improving Construction Project Delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda, a combination of purposive and stratified sampling techniques will be deployed to ensure a comprehensive and representative sample (Alarcón et al., 2002).

3.2.1. Purposive sampling

Initially, purposive sampling will be employed to select specific construction projects in Bushenyi District that are of particular interest to the study. These projects may be chosen based on predetermined criteria, such as project type, size, complexity or historical performance. For example, the study may focus on large infrastructure projects, residential developments and commercial construction.

3.2.2. Stratified sampling

To ensure representation across different categories of construction projects, the selected projects from the purposive sampling will be further categorized into strata. Strata will be based on categories of professionals who will participate in the survey exercise, such as Civil Engineers, Clients, Project Managers, Estate and Property Surveyors. From each stratum, a random or systematic sampling approach may be used to select a subset of projects. This ensures that various types and sizes of projects are included in the study, providing a more comprehensive understanding of lean construction practices’ impact (Berndt, 2020).

3.3. Data analysis

In the evaluation of lean construction practices for Improving Construction Project Delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda, data analysis involves a thorough and systematic examination of various types of data collected. This process includes the exploration of both quantitative and qualitative data, aiming to uncover correlations between different factors related to the implementation of lean construction practices and their impact on construction project delivery. The analysis will also focus on identifying key themes and insights derived from qualitative information, providing a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with lean construction practices in the specific context of Bushenyi District (Oladiran, 2017; Alaneme et al., 2023).

3.3.1. Relative importance index (RII) analysis

The relative importance index (RII) is a statistical technique utilized in the analysis of questionnaires to evaluate the relative significance of various variables or items within a survey. In the context of this study, the RII is applied to gauge the importance of different variables concerning sustainable construction and property valuation (Almpanidou et al., 2023). Survey participants typically assign scores to these variables using a 5-point Likert scale, and the RII is then computed to establish their relative significance. The RII for each variable is determined using the formula presented in Eq. (1)(1) $$\text{RII}=(\sum \left(\text{Weighted Score for Variable}\right)/\left(\mathrm{N}\times \text{Maximum Possible Score}\right))$$(1) , where Σ (weighted score for variable) is the sum of the scores given by respondents for that variable. N is the total number of respondents. Maximum possible score is the highest score a respondent can give (in this case, it is the highest point is 5). Following the computation of RII for each variable, they are subsequently ordered in a descending manner to assess the significance of these factors. Variables with elevated RII values are regarded as more critical based on the respondents’ evaluations. Ultimately, the ordered list of variables serves as a basis for deriving insights and making conclusions regarding the perceived importance of various facets concerning sustainable construction and property valuation, as evaluated by the survey participants (Boakye et al., 2023). (1) $$\text{RII}=(\sum \left(\text{Weighted Score for Variable}\right)/\left(\mathrm{N}\times \text{Maximum Possible Score}\right))$$(1)

3.3.2. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, often denoted as Spearman’s rho (ρ), is a statistical metric employed to evaluate the magnitude and direction of the monotonic association between two sets of ranked or ordinal data. In contrast to Pearson’s correlation coefficient, which assesses linear relationships among continuous variables, Spearman’s correlation deals with variables that may not exhibit continuity or linear associations. In the context of this investigation, the Spearman method allowed the researcher to scrutinize the connections between distinct category of respondents and appraise the consensus or disparities in their perspectives regarding lean construction practices (Hajaghazadeh et al., 2019; De Winter et al., 2016). Spearman’s correlation coefficient (ρ) is calculated using the formula in Eq. (2)(2) $$\rho =\text{1}-\left[\left(6*\sum {\mathrm{d}}^2\right)/\left(\text{n}*\left({\mathrm{n}}^2-\text{1}\right)\right)\right]$$(2) . Where, ρ is Spearman rank correlation coefficient, d represents difference in ranking between the two correspondents like engineer and administrator or project manager and Property Surveyor/Estate or engineer and project manager, and n denotes the number of variables. ρ ranges from −1 to 1; A positive ρ indicates a direct monotonic relationship (as one variable goes up, the other tends to go up). A negative ρ indicates an inverse monotonic relationship (as one variable goes up and the other tends to go down). A ρ of 0 indicates no monotonic relationship (Alaneme George & Elvis, 2019). (2) $$\rho =\text{1}-\left[\left(6*\sum {\mathrm{d}}^2\right)/\left(\text{n}*\left({\mathrm{n}}^2-\text{1}\right)\right)\right]$$(2)

4. Results discussion and analysis

The survey, employed as the primary tool for data collection, was meticulously designed to address the research inquiries regarding lean construction practices. It was then disseminated among the target audience, comprising professionals in the fields of Property Surveying/Estate management, Clients, Project Management and Civil Engineering. The survey elicited responses from a total of 105 participants, each of whom offered valuable insights. The demographic attributes of these participants are outlined in Table 2. The survey results revealed a balanced gender distribution among the respondents, with 62.86% identifying as male and 37.14% as female. In terms of age groups, 49.52% of the participants were within the 36 − 45 age bracket, 38.10% were in the 20 − 35 age range and 8.57% were in the 46 − 60 age category. A deeper dive into the data showcased the diverse levels of professional experience, with 60% of respondents having accumulated 0 − 10 years of experience, while 32.38% boasted 11 − 20 years in their respective fields.

Table 2. Demography of respondents.

Respondents		Property surveyor/estate		Clients		Civil Engineer		Project Manager		Total
details		Freq	%	Freq	%	Freq	%	Freq	%	Freq	%
Sex	M	20	64.52	14	58.33	15	62.50	17	65.38	66	62.86
	F	11	35.48	10	41.67	9	37.50	9	34.62	39	37.14
	Total	31	100	24	100	24	100	26	100	105	100
Age	20–35	8	25.81	11	45.8	12	50.00	9	34.62	40	38.10
	36–45	19	61.29	10	41.67	10	41.67	13	50.00	52	49.52
	46–60	3	9.68	2	8.33	1	4.17	3	11.54	9	8.57
	>60	1	3.23	1	4.17	1	4.17	1	3.85	4	3.81
	Total	31	100	24	100	24	100	26	100	105	100
Years of experience	0–10	12	38.71	18	75.00	16	66.67	17	65.38	63	60.00
	11–20.	15	48.39	6	25.00	7	29.17	6	23.08	34	32.38
	21–30	3	9.68	0	0.00	1	4.17	2	7.69	6	5.71
	>30	1	3.23	0	0.00	0	0.00	1	3.85	2	1.90
	Total	31	100	24	100	24	100	26	100	105	100
Level of education	Diploma	8	25.81	11	45.83	4	21.05	7	26.92	30	28.57
	BSc.	16	51.61	10	41.67	14	73.68	15	57.69	55	52.38
	MSc.	5	16.13	1	4.17	6	31.58	3	11.54	15	14.29
	PhD	2	6.45	2	8.33	0	0.00	1	3.85	5	4.76
	Total	31	100	24	100	24	100	26	100	105	100

Furthermore, the educational backgrounds of the survey participants were diverse, reflecting a wide range of qualifications. The majority of respondents (52.38%) held a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree, while 14.29% had attained a Master of Science (M.Sc.) and 28.57% possessed a Diploma. This comprehensive profile of the survey respondents provides a solid foundation for in-depth analysis and discussion of their perspectives on lean construction practices within the construction industry. It’s notable that a diverse group of professionals participated in the survey, with varying levels of experience and awareness of lean construction practices. Also, the distribution reflects a gender disparity in these professional roles, with males being more dominant. Most respondents were relatively young, which could impact their familiarity with lean construction practices. The diverse representation across genders, ages, experience levels and educational qualifications ensures a holistic view of the topic and enriches the study’s findings.

4.1. Assessment of current construction practices

The existing construction practices in Bushenyi District, Uganda, are characterized by a combination of traditional methods and some modern construction techniques. These practices have evolved over time to address the specific needs and challenges of the region (Wu et al., 2016). Construction practices in Bushenyi District are a blend of traditional methods, cost-effective material use and some modernization. While these practices have served the region well, there is potential for improvement in areas, such as project management, technology adoption and quality control (Aziz & Hafez, 2013). The study of lean construction practices aims to evaluate how incorporating lean principles can enhance construction project delivery in this context. The research data was meticulously analyzed, taking into account the professional roles of the participants, such as Civil Engineers, Clients, Property Surveyors/Estate Managers and Project Managers. The primary objective of the survey was to delve into the realm of significant trends of construction practices in the study area and the findings are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Respondents feedback to examine most significant trends in lean construction practices.

	Property surveyor/estate		Clients		Civil Engineer		Project Manager		Average
Factors	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank
Labor intensive techniques	4.12	3	4.24	2	4.67	1	4.05	4	4.27	3
Limited application of technology	4.67	1	4.08	3	4.11	4	4.49	2	4.34	2
Use of local materials	4.21	2	4.72	1	4.55	2	4.32	3	4.45	1
Building for sustainability	3.92	5	3.81	5	4.12	3	3.88	5	3.93	5
Climate consideration	3.24	6	3.53	6	3.82	5	3.42	6	3.50	6
Project management and oversight	4.05	4	3.93	4	3.79	6	4.72	1	4.12	4

The survey findings provide valuable insights into how participants perceive the primary factors influencing sustainable building practices. Among these results, Property Surveyors/Estate professionals identified ‘Limited Application of Technology’ as the most critical factor. Clients and Civil Engineers, on the other hand, highlighted ‘Use of Local Materials’ and ‘Labor-Intensive Techniques’ as the most significant recent trends in lean construction practices. Project Managers, in contrast, considered ‘Project Management and Oversight’ as the prevailing lean construction practice in Uganda. Despite these differences, all participants unanimously agreed that ‘Climate consideration’ ranked as the least significant trend in lean construction. This variation in viewpoints among the different professional groups underscores the diverse perspectives within the construction industry in Uganda. The survey results underscore the need for a well-rounded approach to sustainable building practices, taking into account both technological advancements and the utilization of local resources. The recognition of ‘Climate consideration’ as the least significant factor suggests an area that may require more attention and focus to further promote sustainability in construction projects in Uganda (Al-Aomar, 2012).

4.2. Investigation of effective lean construction principles

The investigation into effective lean construction principles delves into identifying and understanding the key principles that are most impactful in the field of construction. Lean construction is about optimizing processes to minimize waste, improve efficiency and enhance overall project outcomes. Effective principles typically include a focus on customer value, continuous improvement, collaboration and waste reduction. It promotes collaboration, effective communication and delivering value while minimizing costs and delays. This investigation aims to pinpoint the principles that bring the most significant benefits to construction projects, their implementation and how they contribute to improved project delivery in line with findings of Issa (2013). The respondents feedback provides insights on the lean construction principles in the study area as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Respondents feedback to assess effective lean construction principles.

	Property surveyor/estate		Clients		Civil Engineer		Project Manager		Average
Factors	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank
Value-added activities	4.12	7	3.98	7	4.23	7	4.09	7	4.11	8
Flow and pull	3.96	8	4.04	6	4.76	1	4.38	4	4.29	5
Work in process (WIP) limiting	4.52	2	3.83	9	4.41	5	4.17	6	4.23	6
Decentralized decision making	3.43	9	4.87	1	3.42	9	3.15	9	3.72	9
Waste reduction	4.82	1	4.22	4	4.53	3	4.72	2	4.57	1
Reducing variability	4.35	3	3.91	8	4.47	4	4.84	1	4.39	3
Sustainability	4.18	6	4.54	3	4.64	2	4.41	3	4.44	2
Collaborative planning	4.25	5	4.65	2	4.38	6	3.99	8	4.32	4
Quality at the source	4.31	4	4.06	5	4.15	8	4.23	5	4.19	7

Based on the survey results, it was evident that different stakeholders in construction have varying opinions on the importance of specific lean construction principles. Civil Engineers identified ‘Flow and Pull’ as the most critical factor, highlighting its significance. Clients favored ‘Decentralized Decision-Making,’ emphasizing its importance in their perspective. Meanwhile, Project Managers and Property Surveyor/Estate professionals regarded ‘Waste Reduction and Reducing Variability’ as the most effective lean construction principles, underlining their impact on project outcomes. Interestingly, there was a consensus among Project Managers, Civil Engineers and Property Surveyor/Estate stakeholders that ‘Decentralized Decision-Making’ was the least significant factor. This suggests that they may not perceive it as a critical aspect of lean construction (Francis & Thomas, 2020). Conversely, Clients considered ‘Work in Process (WIP) Limiting’ as the least severe factor, indicating that they may prioritize it less compared to other principles. These variations in perceptions highlight the complexity of lean construction and the differing priorities and perspectives among stakeholders. The diverse perspectives among different stakeholders reveal that there is no unanimous consensus on the importance of lean construction principles. The priorities and perceived significance of these principles can vary significantly between various groups involved in construction projects. Understanding these differences is crucial for effective implementation and collaboration in construction projects. This underscores the need for effective communication and collaboration among stakeholders to align their goals and expectations, ultimately leading to more successful and efficient project management. It also highlights the importance of tailoring lean construction practices to suit the specific needs and objectives of a particular project which aligns with the research findings of Abdel-Razek et al. (2006).

4.3. Evaluation of lean construction implementation challenges

The implementation of lean construction principles in the construction industry is associated with several challenges. These challenges include resistance to change, the need for a cultural shift, lack of awareness and training, difficulties in coordination and communication, technology adoption, measurement of results, project complexity, supply chain coordination, regulatory and contractual barriers and overcoming a short-term focus. Overcoming these challenges requires proper change management, education and training, effective communication, technology integration and a commitment to fostering a culture of continuous improvement in the construction organization. Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of lean construction, such as improved efficiency and reduced waste, make it a valuable approach for enhancing construction project delivery which is consistent with the conclusions drawn by Ballard et al. (2002). The respondents feedback provides insights on the lean construction implementation challenges as shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Respondents feedback to examine lean construction implementation challenges.

	Property surveyor/estate		Clients		Civil Engineer		Project Manager		Average
Factors	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank
Resistance to change	4.54	3	4.06	5	4.63	2	4.05	8	4.32	4
Cultural shift	4.42	4	4.51	2	4.15	5	4.38	5	4.37	3
Lack of training	4.23	5	4.67	1	4.37	4	4.44	4	4.43	1
Supply chain coordination	3.89	7	4.12	4	3.78	8	4.09	7	3.97	8
Data and metrics	3.65	8	3.53	8	4.52	3	4.73	1	4.11	7
Clients’ expectations	4.63	2	3.24	9	4.81	1	3.92	9	4.15	6
Project ownership and collaboration	3.51	9	3.62	7	3.74	9	4.51	3	3.85	9
Measuring success	4.76	1	4.48	3	3.99	7	4.37	6	4.40	2
Communication	4.07	6	3.95	6	4.06	6	4.66	2	4.19	5

The survey results reveal the diverse perspectives of different professional groups on the most severe challenges hindering lean construction implementation in the construction industry. According to Project Managers, communication and the availability of data and metrics are the most critical challenges, emphasizing the importance of effective information flow and measurement in the lean process. In contrast, Civil Engineers view clients’ expectations and resistance to change as the most severe obstacles, indicating the need for managing client demands and addressing resistance within the team. Clients, on the other hand, consider the lack of training and the need for a cultural shift as the most significant factors inhibiting the implementation of lean construction, underscoring the importance of education and organizational culture in adopting lean construction. Property surveyor/estate professionals emphasize the importance of measuring success as a challenge, emphasizing the significance of performance evaluation and continuous improvement (Koskela et al., 1996).

Interestingly, there is some consensus among the groups as well. Civil Engineers and Property surveyor/estate professionals both agree that project ownership and collaboration are the least significant challenges to lean construction implementation, suggesting that they may already have strategies in place to address these aspects. In contrast, Project Managers and Clients perceive clients’ expectations as the least significant factor hindering lean construction, indicating that they may perceive client-related issues differently. These diverse perspectives highlight the complexity of lean construction implementation and the need for a multifaceted approach to address the various challenges across different stakeholder groups. Effective communication, training, cultural change and measurement of success are all essential elements in successfully implementing lean construction principles (Gao et al., 2023).

4.4. Impact of lean construction practices on project delivery

Lean construction principles are central to efficient project management in the construction industry. They include strategies to minimize waste, improve workflow, enhance quality and foster collaboration. By implementing these principles, construction projects can benefit from reduced costs, faster completion, improved safety and higher stakeholder satisfaction. Furthermore, Lean practices align with sustainability goals, promote continuous improvement, provide a competitive advantage and engage employees effectively. In essence, lean construction is a holistic approach that maximizes project efficiency and effectiveness while minimizing waste and delays and the respondents feedback to investigate the impact on project delivery are shown in Table 6 (Wu et al., 2019).

Table 6. Respondents feedback to investigate lean construction impact on project delivery.

	Property Surveyor/estate		Clients		Civil Engineer		Project Manager		Average
Factors	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank	RII	Rank
Faster project completion	4.34	4	3.88	8	4.25	5	4.12	7	4.15	6
Cost control	4.26	5	3.97	7	4.81	1	4.55	5	4.40	4
Enhanced quality	3.85	9	4.14	5	3.92	8	3.9	9	3.95	8
Client satisfaction	4.09	6	4.89	1	4.47	3	4.56	4	4.50	3
Continuous improvement	3.93	8	4.05	6	3.84	9	4.33	6	4.04	7
Competitive advantage	3.48	10	3.76	10	4.09	6	3.87	10	3.80	10
Sustainability	4.77	2	4.63	2	4.46	4	4.61	3	4.62	2
Better safety records	4.02	7	3.82	9	3.68	10	4.04	8	3.89	9
Reduced waste	4.81	1	4.61	3	4.73	2	4.88	1	4.76	1
Improved workflow	4.45	3	4.19	4	3.94	7	4.79	2	4.34	5

The survey results indicate a consensus among Property Surveyor/Estate, Civil Engineers and Project Manager professionals regarding the most critical factors, which are waste reduction, sustainability and cost control. These professionals collectively view these aspects as highly significant in lean construction practices. However, the Clients held a different perspective, emphasizing the importance of clients’ satisfaction and sustainability as the most crucial factors. On the contrary, both the professionals and Clients considered competitive advantage and better safety records to be of lesser importance in the context of lean construction practices. This contrast in priorities highlights the differing viewpoints between the professionals responsible for project management and the clients who benefit from these projects. These findings underscore the alignment between professionals and clients on the significance of sustainability in construction projects while highlighting variations in their priorities concerning waste reduction, cost control and safety records, aligning with the insights provided by Vilventhan et al. (2019).

4.5. Analysis of survey results

The survey findings, which span various aspects of lean construction practices aimed at enhancing construction project delivery, emphasize the need for customized strategies tailored to the roles and experience levels of industry professionals. The utilization of Spearman’s correlation coefficient in the analysis of survey data plays a crucial role in assessing the strength and direction of relationships between variables. This statistical method proves especially valuable when dealing with ranked or ordinal data. In the context of the lean construction survey, Spearman’s correlation coefficient serves as a tool to unveil the interconnections between different factors or variables. The analysis of survey results from the questionnaire pertaining to lean construction, employing Spearman’s correlation coefficient, provides valuable insights into the relationships between the various factors. The participants in the survey represent Property Surveyors/Estate professionals, Civil Engineers, Project Managers and Clients, offering their perspectives on lean construction principles and their associated impacts (Abu Aisheh et al., 2022).

The survey results were segmented into four sections derived from the questionnaire components to evaluate the disparities in assessments and viewpoints among the participating professionals. Statistical analyses were carried out utilizing Minitab version 21 software (State College, Pennsylvania, United States), and p values were computed at a 95% confidence level. The analysis revealed the highest positive correlation of 0.829 between Clients and Property Surveyors/Estate professionals. In contrast, the lowest negative correlation of −0.257 was observed between Civil Engineers and Property Surveyors/Estate professionals, particularly concerning the assessment of current trends in lean construction practices. These findings are presented in Table 7 and illustrated in the matrix plot in Figure 2, covering six attributes within this section (Rovetta, 2020; Awasho & Alemu, 2023).

Figure 2. Spearman correlation matrix plot for lean current construction practices assessment.

Table 7. Pairwise Spearman correlations for lean current construction practices assessment.

Sample 1	Sample 2	N	Correlation	95% CI for ρ	p Value
Clients	Property surveyor/estate	6	0.829	(−0.127, 0.986)	0.042
Civil Engineer	Property surveyor/estate	6	0.371	(−0.653, 0.915)	0.468
Project Manager	Property surveyor/estate	6	0.657	(−0.430, 0.966)	0.156
Civil Engineer	Clients	6	0.657	(−0.430, 0.966)	0.156
Project Manager	Clients	6	0.486	(−0.582, 0.939)	0.329
Project Manager	Civil Engineer	6	−0.257	(−0.888, 0.710)	0.623

The analysis assessing effective lean construction practices among the stratified feedback provided in Table 8 and Figure 3 indicated the highest correlation coefficient of 0.717 between Civil Engineers and Project Managers. This suggests a moderate positive relationship and consistency in their responses. Conversely, a substantial negative correlation of 0.417 was identified between Clients and Property Surveyors/Estate professionals concerning the nine variables. Furthermore, the analysis revealed minimal positive and negative correlations of 0.2 and −0.233 for comparisons between Civil Engineers and Property Surveyors/Estate professionals and between Clients and Civil Engineers, respectively (Iro et al., 2024).

Figure 3. Spearman correlation matrix plot for examination of effective Lean construction principles.

Table 8. Pairwise Spearman correlations for examination of effective lean construction principles.

Sample 1	Sample 2	N	Correlation	95% CI for ρ	p Value
Clients	Property surveyor/Estate	9	−0.417	(−0.856, 0.372)	0.265
Civil Engineer	Property surveyor/estate	9	0.200	(−0.541, 0.766)	0.606
Project Manager	Property surveyor/estate	9	0.533	(−0.255, 0.896)	0.139
Civil Engineer	Clients	9	−0.233	(−0.781, 0.518)	0.546
Project Manager	Clients	9	−0.383	(−0.843, 0.401)	0.308
Project Manager	Civil Engineer	9	0.717	(0.004, 0.947)	0.030

The survey assessment results related to challenges in implementing lean construction, obtained through statistical analysis, are depicted in Table 9 and Figure 4. The computed results highlighted the highest negative correlation of −0.683 between Property Surveyors/Estate professionals and Project Managers, indicating a moderate negative relationship regarding the nine attributes in this section. On the other hand, the maximum positive Spearman correlation value of 0.450 was calculated for Property Surveyors/Estate professionals and Civil Engineers, denoting an average level of agreement. However, the minimum positive and negative correlations of 0.250 and -0.05 were derived for comparisons between Property Surveyors/Estate professionals and Clients and between Clients and Project Managers, respectively (Li et al., 2021).

Figure 4. Spearman correlation matrix plot for evaluation of lean construction implementation challenges.

Table 9. Pairwise Spearman correlations for evaluation of lean construction implementation challenges.

Sample 1	Sample 2	N	Correlation	95% CI for ρ	p Value
Clients	Property surveyor/estate	9	0.250	(−0.506, 0.789)	0.516
Civil Engineer	Property surveyor/estate	9	0.450	(−0.341, 0.868)	0.224
Project Manager	Property surveyor/estate	9	−0.683	(−0.938, 0.053)	0.042
Civil Engineer	Clients	9	−0.267	(−0.796, 0.494)	0.488
Project Manager	Clients	9	−0.050	(−0.691, 0.636)	0.898
Project Manager	Civil Engineer	9	−0.317	(−0.817, 0.456)	0.406

Additionally, the statistical results concerning the evaluation of the impact of lean construction practices on project delivery are presented in Table 10 and Figure 5. The calculated correlations showed the highest positive results of 0.879 between Property Surveyors/Estate professionals and Project Managers, as well as 0.758 between Clients and Project Managers, indicating a substantial positive relationship in their assessments of the impact of lean construction practices on project delivery. In contrast, the correlation between Clients and Civil Engineers was lower, with a value of 0.406, suggesting a less pronounced positive relationship concerning their evaluations of the impact of lean construction practices on project delivery. These findings offer valuable insights into the perceptions and relationships among various professional groups within the construction industry, contributing to informed strategies for lean construction implementation (Alinaitwe, 2009; Durdyev & Mbachu, 2017).

Figure 5. Spearman correlation matrix plot for evaluation of lean construction practices impact on project delivery.

Table 10. Pairwise Spearman correlations for evaluation of lean construction practices impact on project delivery.

Sample 1	Sample 2	N	Correlation	95% CI for ρ	p Value
Clients	Property surveyor/estate	10	0.552	(−0.173, 0.889)	0.098
Civil Engineer	Property surveyor/estate	10	0.552	(−0.173, 0.889)	0.098
Project Manager	Property surveyor/estate	10	0.879	(0.461, 0.978)	0.001
Civil Engineer	Clients	10	0.406	(−0.327, 0.834)	0.244
Project Manager	Clients	10	0.758	(0.149, 0.950)	0.011
Project Manager	Civil Engineer	10	0.527	(−0.201, 0.880)	0.117

5. Conclusion

The evaluation of lean construction practices for improving construction project delivery in the context of Bushenyi District, Uganda, has provided valuable insights into the perceptions and practices of professionals within the construction industry. This research, which involved Property Surveyors/Estate professionals, Civil Engineers, Project Managers and Clients, aimed to assess the current state of lean construction and its impact on project delivery. The survey results, analyzed using Spearman’s correlation coefficient, revealed significant findings across different aspects of lean construction.

First, the study highlighted the need for tailored strategies based on the roles and experience of professionals. Different groups of respondents showed variations in their assessments of current trends in lean construction practices and their effectiveness. This emphasizes the importance of recognizing the diverse perspectives within the construction industry and tailoring lean construction approaches accordingly.

The research shed light on the relationships between various factors, such as the impact of lean construction practices on project delivery. Property Surveyors/Estate professionals, Civil Engineers, Project Managers and Clients had differing perceptions, but the analysis of their responses allowed for a deeper understanding of these relationships. This information can guide the development of strategies to enhance lean construction practices and project delivery.

Additionally, the study pinpointed challenges in the implementation of lean construction. These challenges are critical to address for successful lean construction adoption and improved project delivery. The research findings offer valuable insights that can inform decision-making and help industry professionals navigate the complexities of lean construction practices.

In conclusion, this study has provided a comprehensive overview of the current state of lean construction practices in Bushenyi District, Uganda, and their impact on construction project delivery. By considering the diverse perspectives and experiences of professionals within the construction industry, it has generated insights that can lead to more effective strategies and practices, ultimately contributing to improved project delivery in the region.

5.1. Research contribution

The research on the evaluation of lean construction practices for improving construction project delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda, contributes to existing knowledge, theory and practice in several ways:

1. Advancement of lean construction theory: By conducting a comprehensive assessment of lean construction practices in a specific context, the research contributes to the theoretical understanding of lean methodologies in construction management. It explores how lean principles are applied in real-world scenarios and their impact on project delivery, thereby enriching existing theories of lean construction.

2. Practical insights for practitioners: The findings of the research provide practical insights and recommendations for practitioners involved in construction projects in Bushenyi District and similar regions. By identifying effective lean practices and performance metrics, the research equips practitioners with valuable knowledge to enhance project delivery efficiency and effectiveness.

3. Informing policy and decision-making: The research outcomes can inform policy formulation and decision-making processes related to construction industry regulations and standards in Uganda. By highlighting the benefits and challenges of lean construction practices, policymakers can make informed decisions to promote the adoption of lean methodologies and improve construction project outcomes.

4. Bridging the gap between research and practice: By bridging the gap between academic research and practical implementation, the research facilitates knowledge transfer and exchange between researchers, practitioners and policymakers. It fosters collaboration and dialogue among stakeholders, leading to more effective implementation of lean construction practices and better project outcomes.

Overall, the research contributes to advancing both theoretical understanding and practical application of lean construction practices, ultimately enhancing project delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda and beyond.

5.2. Recommendations for future research

Based on the study on the evaluation of lean construction practices for improving construction project delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda, several recommendations for future research can be proposed:

1. Longitudinal studies: Conduct longitudinal studies to track the long-term effects and sustainability of implementing lean construction practices in the district. This would provide insights into the continuous improvement and evolution of lean methodologies over time.

2. Comparative analysis: Compare the effectiveness of lean construction practices across different regions within Uganda or other similar districts in East Africa. This would help identify contextual factors that influence the success of lean implementation and provide a broader understanding of its applicability.

3. Stakeholder perspectives: Explore the perspectives of various stakeholders, including government agencies, construction companies and local communities, to understand their experiences and challenges with lean construction adoption. This could involve qualitative interviews or focus group discussions to gather diverse viewpoints.

4. Cost-benefit analysis: Conduct a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis to assess the economic impact of lean construction practices on construction project delivery in Bushenyi District. This would involve quantifying the financial benefits gained from improved efficiency and reduced waste against the initial investment in implementing lean methodologies.

5. Sustainability assessment: Evaluate the environmental and social sustainability implications of lean construction practices in the district. This could involve assessing factors, such as carbon emissions, resource utilization and community engagement to determine the overall sustainability performance of lean projects.

6. Knowledge transfer: Investigate strategies for knowledge transfer and capacity building to facilitate the widespread adoption of lean construction practices in Bushenyi District and beyond. This could include training programs, workshops and knowledge-sharing platforms to empower local stakeholders with the skills and resources needed for successful lean implementation.

By addressing these areas in future research endeavors, the understanding of lean construction practices and their impact on construction project delivery in Bushenyi District, Uganda, can be further advanced, ultimately contributing to more efficient and sustainable construction practices in the region.

Ethical approval

This research study was conducted as approved by the research ethical committee (REC) of the Post graduate school, Kampala International University, Uganda. We also affirm that the content of this work is original and has followed the journal template.

Author contributions

NMA: (Conceptualization: Supporting; Formal analysis: Supporting; Investigation: Equal; Methodology: Equal; Project administration: Supporting; Resources: Lead; Software: Lead; Writing – original draft: Lead; Writing – review and editing: Supporting).

GUA: (Conceptualization: Lead; Formal analysis: Lead; Investigation: Equal; Methodology: Lead; Project administration: Lead; Supervision: Lead; Validation: Lead; Writing – review and editing: Lead).

BCO: (Conceptualization: Supporting; Formal analysis: Supporting; Investigation: Supporting; Methodology: Supporting; Project administration: Equal; Software: Equal; Supervision: Lead; Validation: Lead; Writing – review and editing: Supporting).

MML: (Investigation: Supporting; Methodology: Supporting; Project administration: Equal; Software: Equal; Supervision: Lead; Validation: Lead; Writing – review and editing: Supporting).

Disclosure statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Data availability statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Njideka Maryclara Aguome

Njideka Maryclara Aguome is a senior lecturer in the department of Architecture and Planning, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana. Her research interest is on sustainable construction engineering practices and estate management.

George Uwadiegwu Alaneme

George Uwadiegwu Alaneme is a Doctoral candidate at department of Civil Engineering Kampala International University, Uganda. His research interests include structural mechanics, finite element analysis and modelling, applications of soft computing techniques modelling and optimization on civil construction management, failure analysis, sustainable structural and geotechnical materials development.

Bamidele Charles Olaiya

Bamidele Charles Olaiya is a Doctoral candidate in the department of Civil Engineering at Kampala International University in Uganda. His research interests include sustainable structural and geotechnical materials development, soft computing techniques modelling and optimization on civil construction management, sustainability studies.

Mustapha Muhammad Lawan

Mustapha Muhammad Lawan is an associate professor in the department ofCivil Engineering Kampala International University, Uganda. His research interests include structural materials optimization, construction management, structural mechanics, finite element analysis and modelling.