Dry season feeding strategies and winter forage production by communal area sheep farmers of the Eastern Cape province in South Africa

Abstract

The potential of using winter forages as a cheap, high-quality winter supplement has been investigated at an experimental level with positive results. There is no information on the extent, practices, and challenges of winter forage production by communal farmers in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. In this study, we assess farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of winter forage production and the challenges that come with it, as well as the perceived benefits of communal sheep production. A total of 32 sheep farmers involved in winter forage cultivation were interviewed using a structured questionnaire in Swartwater village. Descriptive statistics were generated using SPSS 20 and categorical variables were evaluated using frequencies. Lambing was reported to be prevalent in June (36%), and poor nutrition was believed to be responsible for the high lamb mortality (42%). All respondents were supplementing mainly with maize grain (26%) and planted forages (26%). Oats (52%), radish (18%), and barley (14%) were the most planted forage species. Improved wool quality (22%) and ewe body condition (21%) were some of the benefits associated with winter forage production. For a wider adoption of forage production, the reported challenges of moisture stress (57%) and poor government support (19%) need to be addressed, and furthermore, farmer training and information sharing would speed up the process. In order to promote winter forage cultivation and integrate it into communal area farming systems, we propose further studies on proper planting guidelines to generate information to support context—specific production strategies.

Keywords:

• Sheep
• winter forage
• supplementation
• planting
• lambing

1. Introduction

Livestock production is a major livelihood source for communal farmers in South Africa (Taruvinga et al., 2022) and sheep production is dominant in the Eastern Cape with 29% (6.5 million) of the national sheep numbers (National Livestock Statistics (NLS), 2019). Productivity is limited by diseases (Bath et al., 2016), parasites (Mphahlele, 2020) and environmental factors such as drinking water (Adeniji et al., 2020) and feed (Bath et al., 2016). Forage scarcity happens in the dry winter season when plant growth is curtailed by low soil moisture and ambient temperatures for the predominant summer grasses found in the rangelands (Magawana et al., 2021). During this season, perennial grasses would have reached maturity and therefore be poor in quality (Kwaza et al., 2016; Nyamukanza et al., 2010). In order to sustain livestock productivity, some communal sheep farmers use expensive supplements such as commercial protein and mineral licks, and high protein forage such as lucerne (Mthi et al., 2017). Poorly resourced farmers depend on the rangelands, while those who plant summer crops use the remaining post-harvest residues (Descheemaeker et al., 2016). Very few opt for destocking, as evidenced by low off-take rates in communal areas.

The contribution of crop residues to livestock feed in communal areas has decreased due to the abandonment of cropping by most communal farmers (Zantsi & Bester, 2019). A decrease in households engaged in cropping and rearing of livestock is sometimes termed “deagrarianization”. Before deagrarianisation, livestock production and crop production were linked, crop residues supplemented rangelands to provide forage for livestock during the dry season. Conversely, animals deposited manure during grazing in the fields. There has been an increase in cropping land abandonment in the former homelands of South Africa (Blair et al., 2018) and it has been attributed to rural-urban migration, the introduction of state social grants, drought, and rainfall variability due to climate change (Bryceson, 1996). In addition, climate change has led to reduced availability of forage in natural pastures, which has adversely affected ruminant livestock production (Halimani et al., 2021), and led to farmers adopting various coping strategies. These include diversifying forage sources. Considering the reported increased cropping abandonment, it is important to understand the feeding strategies currently adopted by poor—resourced communal farmers.

Some South African communal sheep farmers participated in a winter forage trial using their vegetable gardens to explore the potential of winter forage cultivation to cover the feed quantity and quality gap experienced in the dry winter season (Dedekind, 2016). Experimental winter forages included oats and vetch, and their viability as a potential winter supplement was confirmed by Dedekind (2016). Others practice mixed crop-livestock production systems, where summer crops are still planted and the same land after harvest is then used for winter crops that fulfil both the cover crop and forage functions. Planting winter forages reduces the requirements for expensive supplements by extending the grazing season, and thus reducing the period of supplementation (Hoveland et al., 1978).

Rainfed autumn planting of winter forages can be one of the options to mitigate forage deficits in natural rangelands and thus improve livestock production. Several studies have documented communal farmers’ perceptions of sheep production constraints (Mthi & Nyangiwe, 2018), production and reproduction profiles (Rust et al., 2020a), and wool production constraints (Mahashi et al., 2019), but few have focused on livestock farmers’ rainfed forage planting. There has been little appraisal of the viability of rainfed winter forage production in the smallholder communal area farming systems. Experimental-level studies acknowledge the potential of winter forages in solving the winter forage gap, but the wide-scale household adoption of this practice is unknown. There is a dearth of information on the extent of winter forage production, species or a combination of species planted and their utilization method. Dedekind (2016) only investigated the viability of winter forage crops as a source of nutritious forage in communal farmers’ gardens. Furthermore, the challenges faced by farmers who engage in winter forage cropping have not been examined. The objectives of this research were to gain a better understanding of the current winter supplementation strategies used by communal sheep farmers in the Eastern Cape, to collect farmer perspectives on challenges, and to investigate the potential of winter forage production as a sustainable feed source for sheep production systems. The results of this study will assist to identify the major forage species used and their limitations to forage production and formulate appropriate interventions to expand the production and utilization of winter forages by communal sheep farmers.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study site

The study was conducted at Swartwater village in Emalahleni local municipality of the Eastern Cape province (Figure 1). The village, with coordinates 31° 40’ 28” S and 26° 50’ 10” E is 50 km southeast of Queenstown and 1477 m above sea level. Summer and winter average temperatures are 20°C and 11°C, respectively, while annual rainfall ranges from 430 to 790 mm, with the majority falling between October and March (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006). The bedrock geology consists of sandstones and mudstones, while soils are shallow, stoney (Falayi et al., 2020), slightly acidic with 0.1% N, 0.001% P, and 0.8% C (Ruwanza, 2022). The vegetation is classified as Tsomo grassland dominated by grassland and open thornveld (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006). Households in these communal areas are dependent on both crop and livestock production. In 2019, approximately 30.4% of the households in the Eastern Cape were engaged in agricultural activities (Stats, 2020), with livestock being practiced by 83% of the households, while grain and food crops were practiced by 52% of households, with little participation in fodder production (0.6%; Stats, 2020). The dominant livestock is cattle, sheep and goats which mainly utilize the rangelands under continuous grazing as a source of feed. The social grants from the state and remittances from relatives in urban areas add to the income obtained from agriculture.

Figure 1. The average number of livestock kept by farmers involved in winter forage cultivation in parts of the Eastern Cape.

2.2. Sampling procedure

Purposive sampling (Tongco, 2007) was used for participant selection. To align with the study objectives, only sheep farmers who use or have previously used cultivated winter forages were targeted. A list of communal sheep farmers planting forages was solicited from the extension officer. Thirty-two sheep farmers who planted forage for winter supplementation were interviewed in October 2021.

2.3. Data collection

A semi-structured questionnaire with open and close-ended questions was used to solicit information on ruminant livestock numbers, lambing, winter feed supplementation, forage crops planted, and planting period. In addition, the problems they faced, and the benefits accrued from planting winter forage crops were asked. The questionnaire was piloted before it was used for data collection. The farmers were interviewed in the language they were comfortable with. To minimize response bias, interviews were conducted one-on-one with household representatives to avoid potential influence from other household representatives in survey responses. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Fort Cox Ethics Committee (Ethical certificate no. FC/2/2021) of Fort Cox Agriculture and Forestry Training Institute which complies with the South African National Health Act 61 of 2003 and regulations relating to research involving human participants.

2.4. Statistical analysis

Survey responses were captured in excel, and the data was cleaned by individually reviewing responses. The data was then coded in preparation for analysis. Descriptive statistics were generated using SPSS 20 (IBM, 2020), and categorical variables were evaluated using frequencies.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Demographic characteristics

Most of the respondents were males (69%), and the average age was 52 years (ranging from 24 to 81 years), with the majority (38%) of the respondents above 61 years old (Table 1). Many (44%) of them are educated up to the secondary school level with an annual total income range of less than R50 000. Forty—nine percent of them cited livestock production as their primary source of income (Table 1), and most (66%) of them are unemployed. Forty-seven percent of respondents had more than 15 years of sheep farming experience, and the majority (75%) had no agriculture-related training but are members of some farmers association.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of respondents involved in winter forage cultivation in parts of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa

Parameter	Number of respondents	Percentage
Gender
Male	22	68.8
Female	10	31.2
Age group
20–45	9	28.1
46–60	11	34.4
>60	12	37.5
Education
Primary	11	34.3
Secondary	14	43.8
Tertiary	7	21.9
Employment
Full-time	6	18.8
Unemployed	21	65.6
Self-employed	5	15.6
Annual Income (rands)
< 50 000	21	65.6
50 000–100 000	10	31.3
> 100 000	1	3.1
Source of income (% cases)
Grant	24	39.3
Salary	5	8.2
Crop	2	3.3
Livestock	30	49.2
Sheep farming experience (years)
< 5	5	15.6
5–10	8	25.0
11–15	4	12.5
> 15	15	46.9
Training in agriculture
Yes	8	25.0
No	24	75.0
Member of farmer`s association
Yes	24	75.0
No	8	25.0

The dominance of males in livestock production has been widely reported in South Africa (Mapiliyao et al., 2012; Maziya et al., 2020; Mthis et al., 2020a). Traditionally, men are household heads and are mainly the ones involved in managing grazing livestock, while women are predominantly focused on poultry rearing (Gueye, 2000). Several authors (Chipfupa & Tagwi, 2021; Mthi et al., 2020a) observed less involvement of youths in livestock farming, as evidenced by the high percentage of old people observed in this study. The perceived lower income in agriculture compared to urban employment (Kadzamira & Kazembe, 2015), lack of interest in agriculture (Hull, 2014), and lack of capital might be deterrent factors for youth involvement in agriculture (Mulema et al., 2021). The higher number of respondents with a secondary school level of education in this study might have been influenced by the sampled population which engaged in winter forage production. This farming practice needs some more knowledge on the agronomy of different forage species and their management. Furthermore, farmers should also be able to search for information and adopt new strategies to improve their livestock production as highlighted by Bahta (2020). This level of education might have also influenced the majority to join the farmers’ organization as they comprehend the reported (Bachke, 2009; Bernard et al., 2008) positive benefits of being a member of a farmers` association. Even though most of them were not trained in agriculture, their experience in sheep farming was comparable to that of the livestock farmers (12 years) in the Northern Cape (Bahta, 2020; Maltitz & Bahta, 2021). Cheteni and Mokhele (2019) report that the number of years involved in agriculture has a positive influence on marketing options based on the knowledge and experience gained. Similarly, in this study, the experience of the sheep farmers has assisted them in adopting some tried and tested effective sheep production practices.

The level of unemployed respondents is slightly higher than the unemployment rate of the Eastern Cape province (54%) reported for the 3^rd quarter of 2021 (Stats, 2021). The state of being unemployed limits income diversification by farmers even though it affords them ample opportunity to monitor their livestock (Taruvinga et al., 2022). The annual income for most of the respondents is within the range reported by Mujuru and Obi (2020) (R 5001–10,000), and Taruvinga et al. (2022) (R12 001–24 000) and is mainly from social grants and livestock production.

3.2. Ruminant livestock composition

Sheep are the dominant livestock species kept by the respondents (100%), followed by cattle (59.4%) and goats (43.7%; Figure 1). The mean flock size was 91.84, while the herd size for cattle and goats were 13.6 and 16.9, respectively (Table 2). Ewe and does comprised more than 60% of their respective flocks and herd structures with an average of 55.9 and 25.36, respectively. Cows constituted 54% of the herd structure with a mean of 14.11 (Table 2).

Table 2. Herd and flock structure of ruminant livestock kept by farmers involved in winter forage cultivation in parts of the Eastern Cape

Parameter	Mean (Standard Deviation)
Cattle
Cows	8.4 (18.66)
Bulls	1.2(0.92)
Weaners	4.7 (11.51)
Sheep
Ewes	55.9(40.08)
Rams	3.3 (3.87)
Lambs	31.6 (37.85)
Goats
Does	11.1 (19.61)
Bucks	1.5 (1.07)
Weaned kids	5.3 (9.84)

The dominance of sheep production as compared to other ruminants is due to the sampling criteria that selected sheep farmers, and furthermore, sheep production predominates in the Eastern Cape (National Livestock Statistics (NLS), 2019). The higher sheep numbers reported in this study might have been due to availability of large areas for grazing and training support from government and sheep producer organisations (Rust et al., 2020a). The reported higher percentages of ewes, does and cows, also observed by 2018 and Rust et al. (2020a) signify a proper herd/flock structure that is dominated by breeding animals suggesting a shift towards improved breeding practices by communal farmers. This could have been expected considering that most of the farmers had secondary level of education coupled with more years practising livestock farming. Cattle numbers were like those observed by De Beer and Terblanche (2015). The average number of goats kept per household is closer to the numbers reported by Mahlobo (2016), De Beer and Terblanche (2015) which were 17.4 and 15 in KwaZulu-Natal, and the Eastern Cape, respectively.

3.3. Lambing season and mortality

The reported lambing season is predominantly in late autumn and winter. A majority (36,2%) of the respondents indicated that their ewes lamb in June, followed by May (26,2%) and July (23.8%; Figure 2). Very few farmers (less than 2%) reported lambing in spring and summer. Lamb mortality was reported to be high by most of the respondents (42%; Figure 3), and it was attributed mostly to poor nutrition from the rangeland (43.8%), parasites and diseases (31,3%), and cold weather conditions (9,3%; Figure 4).

Figure 2. Lambing months of sheep kept by communal farmers who cultivate winter forage crops in parts of the Eastern Cape.

Figure 3. Level of lamb mortality reported by sheep farmers involved in winter forage cultivation in parts of the Eastern Cape.

Figure 4. Causes of lamb mortality.

Sheep have seasonal reproductive behaviour which is affected by photoperiod, nutrition, and temperature (Menassol et al., 2012). A continuous breeding cycle is inherent in communal areas since there are no grazing camps, and animals from individual farmers can mix in the communal rangeland (Mapiliyao, 2010). J.M. Rust et al. (2020b) affirmed that the lambing season in communal areas of the Eastern Cape is not clearly defined, however, in their study, a peak in cumulative lambing percentage was observed in July, while Mapiliyao (2010) and Kom (2016) reported most of the lambing happened in June. Very few farmers in this study reported lambing in August, September and October. This suggests that high forage biomass of high quality in summer results in improved body condition of ewes and thus initiates the onset of oestrus. Menassol et al. (2012) reported that an interaction between nutrition and the photoperiodic cycle moderates the seasonal patterns of reproductive behavior in sheep.

The reported high level of lamb mortality was also observed by Kom (2016) in the same province. Poor nutrition has been widely reported to have an impact on lamb mortality (Bangar et al., 2016; Gowane et al., 2020; Lakew et al., 2014), and poor rangeland condition was the most frequently cited cause of lamb mortality by communal farmers in the Eastern Cape province (Kom, 2016; Mthi et al., 2020b). The limited amount and reduced quality of forage in communal grazing areas during winter (Magawana et al., 2021) limits the dry matter intake and thus the failure by ewes to meet their nutrient requirements for maintenance and milk production for lambs. Kopp et al. (2020) highlighted that most sheep producers attributed low lamb mortality in years with high feed availability to ewes having good body condition and thus adequate milk production. According to Cloete et al. (1993) and Refshauge et al. (2015), the second most important factor causing lamb mortality is starvation-mismothering. Diseases and parasites have also been a major cause of lamb mortality, particularly during the rainy season (Bangar et al., 2016; Belay & Haile, 2011; Mthi et al., 2020b). Helminthic infestation and pneumonia are prevalent during the rainy season (Belay & Haile, 2011). The other factors reported in this study which contributed to lamb mortality, such as cold weather and failure to obtain colostrum, were also highlighted by Shiels et al. (2022) in Ireland.

3.4. Supplementation

All the respondents supplement their sheep during the winter season. Supplementation starts in February with a few respondents (2.2%), and peaks in June and July with 27.5% and 29.7% of respondents, respectively (Figure 5). Most of the respondents use maize grain (26.1%), planted forage (26.1%), energy and protein licks (16.3%), commercial feed (14.1%), and hay (9.8%). The less common supplements used by less than 7% of the respondents were shelled maize cobs (Figure 6).

Figure 5. Months of supplementation by sheep farmers in parts of the Eastern Cape.

Figure 6. Types of supplements used by sheep farmers in parts of the Eastern Cape.

Nutrition of the ewe during gestation affects the birth weight, postnatal growth rate, pre-weaning survival, and health of the offspring (Reed et al., 2014). Energy intake is the major determinant of milk yield in sheep (Pulina et al., 2005) and thus the growth of lambs. The quantity and quality of natural pastures is usually low at the end of the growing season (Nyamukanza et al., 2010), which coincides with the elevated nutrient requirements of ewes during the lambing season (Rust et al., 2020b). Crude protein (Visser, 2017) was identified as the first limiting nutrient for sheep production in winter on a South African grassland, and zinc, molybdenum and phosphorus were also low. The neutral detergent fibre was high, and digestibility was poor in the dry season. Holechek and Herbel (1986) further assert that energy, crude protein, phosphorus, and vitamin A limit ruminant livestock production in rangelands. The higher percentage of respondents supplementing their sheep in winter might be related to the sampled population, which was limited to farmers involved in winter forage cultivation. The level of supplementation has been reported to be low in communal sheep farming systems (Halimani et al., 2021; Kom, 2016; Makapela, 2008) as compared to commercial farmers. A few farmers who supplemented prioritized lactating ewes and lambs (Kom, 2016; Makapela, 2008). The poorly resourced communal farmers cannot afford the expensive commercial supplements, thus the observed low levels of their use.

Similar to this study, maize grain (Kom, 2016; Malusi et al., 2021) and planted forages (Dedekind, 2016; Makapela, 2008) were reported to be the predominant supplements used in winter by communal farmers in the Eastern Cape. Mineral licks and commercial diets are some of the supplements used by communal farmers (Malusi et al., 2021; Mthi et al., 2017). The use of maize grain increases energy requirements, while licks increase macro and micro minerals, both of which are essential. While there is widespread use of crop residues in for example, Mexico (Hellin et al., 2013) and Ethiopia (Mekuria et al., 2018), maize grain is the major supplement in this study due to reduced cultivation of grain crops (Zantsi & Bester (2019) and a shift towards intensification of vegetable crops in homestead gardens (Connor & Mtwana, 2018). Farmers buy maize grain which is relatively cheaper than commercial supplements.

3.5. Winter forage species planted and reasons for selecting them

All the interviewed farmers planted winter forages, and the average hectarage planted was 3.3 ± 0.63 ha. Most of the respondents planted forage oats (Avena sativa) (51.8%) for winter feeding, followed by forage radish (Raphanus sativa) (17.9%) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) (14.3%; Table 3). Very few respondents (1%) planted wheat (Triticum aestivum), turnips (Brassica rapa), chicory (Cichorium intybus), vetch (Vicia sativa) and annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum). In Table 3, most of the respondents (89%) did not plant winter legumes because of ignorance (84%; Table 3) about the legume species which can be grown in winter in their areas. The primary reasons for selecting widely planted species were that they were the only ones known to the farmers (38%), and they were also adapted to the environment (13%) by increasing throughput during the winter season (16%; Table 3) Their beneficial effect of increasing milk yield of the ewes to support lamb growth was also vital in their selection by 19% of the farmers.

Table 3. Type and reasons for selected planted forages

Parameter	Frequency	Percentage
Forage planted
Oats	29	51.8
Barley	8	14.3
Wheat	1	1.8
Turnips	1	1.8
Radish	10	17.9
Vetch	1	1.8
Chicory	1	1.8
Lucerne	4	7.1
Annual ryegrass	1	1.8
Total	56	100
Reasons for planting the species
Only species known	12	37.5
Make ewes to produce more milk	6	18.8
Does not need much water	3	9.4
Grow throughout winter season	5	15.6
Suitable for feeding sheep	2	6.2
Adapted to the environment	4	12.5
Total	32	100
Are winter legumes planted?
Yes	4	12.5
No	28	87.5
Total	32	100
Reason for not planting winter legume
Lack of knowledge	27	84.4
Poor rainfall	5	15.6
Total	32	100
Planting method
Mixed planting	13	40.6
Sole planting	19	59.4
Total	32	100
Type of seed mix
Oats + barley + wheat	5	38.4
Oats + Lucerne	2	15.4
Oats + Radish	2	15.4
Oats + Maize	2	15.4
Barley + Radish	2	15.4
Total	13	100
Preference for mixes
Improve forage quality	9	69.2
Improves availability of forage across winter season	4	30.8
Total	13	100
Type of fertiliser used
Manure	14	43.8
Inorganic fertiliser	16	50.0
No fertiliser applied	2	6.2
Total	32	100

The size of the fields is above the reported range for smallholder farmers in South Africa, which ranged from 0.86 ha (Pienaar & Traub, 2015) to 1.5 ha (Oni et al., 2012). The large size of fields may be because the selected farmers were those focused on producing forage to feed their sheep in winter, and hence were involved in some intensive form of forage production. Oats is the common winter forage planted by commercial farmers under both irrigation and dryland conditions. Under winter grazing conditions at Kokstad in South Africa, it surpassed ryegrass and fescue in ewe and lamb growth (Lyle et al., 2000). Oats have been the dominant winter forage for small-scale dairy farms in Kenya (Mwendia et al., 2017), and livestock farmers in the cold highland regions of Ethiopia (Kebede et al., 2016). Oats is adapted to adverse conditions such as less fertile soils that are susceptible to waterlogging and is also resistant to frost and diseases. The high biomass produced by oats and its high nutritional quality might be driving its wider adoption by farmers as observed in Ethiopia (Mekonnen et al., 2021). It can be grazed or harvested and conserved as silage or hay, depending on the farming systems and costs associated with conservation. In northern and northwestern China, it is stored as hay, and fed during the cold dry season (Long & Ma, 1996). Similar to this study, Australian farmers also graze oats, barley, and wheat forages taking advantage of their high nutritive value and growth rate in winter and thus are fit to fill the winter feed gap (Masters et al., 2018).

Barley planting in South Africa has mainly been concentrated on commercial farms in the winter rainfall area of the Western cape to produce grain for the beer industry (DAFF, 2017). In the Eastern Cape winter rainfall areas, an investigation into the use of barley as a potential cover crop for weed suppression and improved soil fertility when intercropped into summer cereals resulted in positive results (Muzangwa et al., 2013). It is, however, not extensively cultivated for livestock forage on South African commercial dairy farms. However, in Tunisia, barley serves as the main crop used for winter grazing and grain (Ouji et al., 2010). Small ruminant farmers graze or cut barley at a young stage, and then allow it to tiller and grow to the reproductive stage and produce grain (Beji, 2016). In South Africa, it is grown under irrigation for the production of grain in the non-winter rainfall regions of the Northern Cape and North West Provinces. It is, therefore, possible that late summer or early autumn planting in some low winter rainfall areas of the Eastern cape can provide winter forage for sheep farmers. Besides being used as a cover crop (Muzangwa et al., 2013), fodder radish has been found to improve sheep performance when grazed in early winter in South Africa (Rethman & Heyns, 1987). Furthermore, experimental relay intercropping of fodder radish with maize to improve the crude protein content of the grazed dryland maize diet was found to be a sustainable sheep production system (Van Zyl et al., 2007). In addition to improving soil health and reducing soil compaction by reducing rangeland grazing time, radish is grown in America to extend the grazing season for ruminants (Drewnoski et al., 2018).

Several reasons might be responsible for less planting of other species, such as lack of exposure, knowledge and skill to cultivate them (Lukuyu et al., 2009; Nzogela et al., 2021). In addition, less moisture from natural rain to support ryegrass growth, and preference for annual pastures to allow the use of land for summer cropping deters production of perennial species. In South Africa, research on vetch planting has mainly focused on its potential adoption as a cover crop source of nitrogen in conservation agriculture (Dube et al., 2014), while in Ethiopia, vetch has been grown for livestock feeding after summer crop harvests (Getnet et al., 2003). Vetch is the only legume cited by only one farmer, and most of them indicated that they do not plant legumes. This might be due to less research focus in South Africa on adaptable indigenous legumes that can be used for forage, as observed by Trytsman et al. (2019). Morgenthal et al. (2013) investigated the potential of a mix of exotic legumes cultivated under rainfed conditions in abandoned fields in some communal areas in the Eastern cape with promising results. However, the persistence of the perennial ones was poor. Ryegrass and chicory are mainly planted under irrigation on commercial dairy farms in South Africa, and annual ryegrass`s high water requirements (Abraha et al., 2015) limit its cultivation under the rainfed conditions of communal farmers. Despite the fact that chicory requires more moisture, the benefits to soil structure and dry matter production is enormous when grown as a perennial forage in mixes with perennial legumes (Li et al., 2012). Furthermore, it must be grown when temperatures are greater than 10°C to assist with the establishment of seedlings by reducing weed competition (Barry, 1998). Farmers in communal areas want to use their fields in the summer, so growing a perennial crop will disrupt their cropping patterns.

3.6. Planting type, period, fertilization and forage utilization

Most of the farmers plant the winter forages in their crop fields (60%) and a few in vegetable gardens (40%). Most of the farmers (67%) plant maize in the fields during summer, while 33% of the farmers leave their fields fallow during summer. The most practiced (59%) planting method was sole planting, and in mixes, oats were largely mixed with barley and wheat (38%). Oats were the predominant crop in all the stated mixes, except in 15% of the farmers where barley was mixed with radish (Table 3). The main reasons for planting these preferred mixes were that they improve the nutritive value (69%) of the diet for the animals, and they also result in a seasonal spread of available biomass (31%) due to their different growth curves (Table 3). February was considered an early planting period by most (40%) of the farmers, while March was considered a late planting period (55%) for the winter forages (Figure 7). Inorganic fertilizer application is practiced by half of the respondents, followed by those applying organic manure (44%), and the rest are not applying anything to improve the soil nutrient status (Table 3). Winter forage was mainly utilised by sheep through grazing by most of the farmers (76%), while a few were harvested and fed as hay (24%) later in the dry season (Figure 8).

Figure 7. Early and late planting periods by farmers planting winter forages.

Figure 8. Method of forage utilization by selected sheep farmers.

The few farmers who avoid cultivating summer crops might be due to poor financial returns in such ventures, and thus they would rather rest the land for winter forages. Large tracts of abandoned arable lands in the Eastern Cape have partly been attributed to the poor profit margins from rainfed maize cultivation due to poor soils that lead to low yields (Mujuru & Obi, 2020; Zantsi & Bester, 2019). For those who are still engaged in summer cropping, maize is the predominant crop cultivated by smallholder farmers, as observed by Manyevere et al. (2014) in the communal areas of the Eastern Cape. Maize is the crop generally used in the Eastern cape. The grain is ground to mealie meal for cooking pap, or can be processed to make samp, and the cobs, before they are fully mature and dry, can be cooked as green mealies (Mujuru & Obi, 2020).

Monocropping of maize is the major cropping system used by communal smallholder farmers in South Africa (Mthembu et al., 2019), and there has been limited adoption of intercropping in communal areas, except where maize has been planted with groundnut and cowpea in Limpopo province (Ayisi et al., 2004). Intercropping or multi-species pastures are mainly used in irrigated cultivated pastures on dairy farms in South Africa (Viljoen et al., 2020), and communal farmers have not been exposed to this farming system. Multispecies pastures have high yield, and they also provide an even distribution of forage biomass and feed quality throughout the grazing season (Romera et al., 2017). A mix of three kinds of cereal (oats, barley, and wheat) improves the nutritional quality of the animal diet because of their different nutrient composition and digestibility, and also because their different growth curves will spread feed availability across the winter season.

Planting date has a major influence on forage yield needed to meet the grazing requirements for the winter period (Darapuneni et al., 2016). Available moisture at planting time and soon afterward rather than the planting date, is critical. Delayed planting in rainfed systems is associated with decreased precipitation and cooler temperatures, which will negatively affect seedling emergence, stand establishment, and growth (Denman et al., 2021). In the Eastern cape, the number of rainy days decrease from the highest in January to the least in July, and the same trend is observed with average day and night-time temperatures (Worlddata info, 2022). Muzangwa et al. (2013) and Lamega et al. (2021) observed some reduced forage yield in late—planted winter forage cover crops in South Africa. The observed dominant planting months of February to March correspond with the recommended planting period for oats in South Africa for provision of winter livestock grazing (Berjak, 2020), and also coincides with the harvest of early planted maize. Few respondents plant in April and May and this may be due to the resultant limitation of plant germination and growth due to moisture deficiency. The limited use of organic fertilizers in smallholder crop farming systems in South Africa have been widely reported (Bese et al., 2021), and limited kraaling of livestock might be the major driver.

Forage utilization methods are determined by many factors, which range from the farmer`s resources, such as finances, infrastructure, and equipment, to undertake different forage utilization approaches. Haymaking incurs additional costs compared to animals harvesting the forage themselves, and it is not the best method in heavily stocked farms where high stocking rates reduce selective grazing but promote efficient forage utilisation. Prohibitive costs associated with the machinery required for hay making by smallholder farmers were reported in Hondurus by Reiber et al. (2012). Most of the selected farmers were dependent on the government support for planting and the small hectarage planted does not justify the costly harvesting exercise, so most of them preferred grazing. Preserving forage as hay is associated with quality loss. Therefore, it is usually done when there is excess forage that needs to be preserved for the winter season (Enoh et al., 2005).

3.7. Benefits of winter forage

A majority of the respondents (94%) found planting winter forage to have benefits in sheep production, whilst 6% saw no benefits maybe because of many challenges experienced in the absence of government support. The improved wool quality and ewe body condition were the most reported benefits by the respondents (22% and 21%), respectively (Table 4).

Table 4. Benefits, challenges and suggested interventions to improve adoption of winter forage production by communal sheep farmers

Parameter	Frequency	Percentage
Winter forage benefits
Increased lambing percentage	23	19.3
Reduced lamb mortality rate	23	19.3
Increased lamb growth rate Improved ewe body condition Improved wool quality	22 25 26	18.5 21.0 21.8
Total cases	119	100
Challenges with winter forage production
Moisture stress	24	57.1
Poor government support	8	19.0
Poor germination	6	14.3
Weeds and pests	3	7.2
Lack of knowledge	1	2.4
Total	32	100
Interventions to upscale winter forage production?
Educate other farmers on winter forage production	24	50
Government support (Seeds, implements, fencing)	20	41.7
Implement water conservation practices	4	8.3
Total cases	48	100

In the United Kingdom, sheep and lambs grazing a mixture of vetch and ryegrass had superior weights (Thomas et al., 2022), while Lyle et al., 2000) in South Africa observed that ewes grazing oats pastures from birth to weaning gained the highest weight compared to those grazing other grass species such as tall fescue. In Australia, the beneficial effects of oat grazing on the quantity and quality of wool were observed (Spurway et al., 1974). The high crude protein in vetch and high energy in oats contribute to the reported increased growth rate and wool quality of sheep raised by farmers involved in winter forage cultivation. The high metabolizable energy, digestibility and low fibre content of forage radish (Watt et al., 2021), a commonly grown brassica by sheep farmers, also influenced the reported positive impacts on sheep performance.

3.8. Challenges and intervention strategies to expand winter forage production

A major constraint to a wider adoption of winter forage cultivation in communal areas is moisture stress and poor government support, which were reported by 57% and 19% of the respondents, respectively (Table 4). Poor government support included issues such as assistance being rendered late for planting and a lack of fencing and equipment support for land preparation. Agronomic factors such as poor germination (14%) and weed and pests’ infestation (7%) were some of the challenges experienced by farmers (Table 4). Half of the respondents suggested a need to educate some of the sheep farmers on the benefits of planting winter forages to improve sheep production (Table 4). Furthermore, government support in the form of seeds, land preparation equipment, and fencing of fields was reported (42%) to be crucial for the wider adoption of this farming practice.

Halimani et al. (2021) found that low rainfall and water scarcity adversely affected communal sheep farmers in semi-arid areas of South Africa. Water scarcity was perceived to lead to a reduction in milk yield due to insufficient water intake and the negative effect of the long distance traveled to watering points. In this study, low rainfall in late summer to early autumn limited planting of winter forages, which are critical for optimum sheep production in winter. Low winter rainfall in the Eastern cape province of South Africa has been identified as limiting the growth of cover crops (Muzangwa et al., 2013). Water scarcity was also a major barrier to forage production adoption in Cambodia (Ashley et al., 2018) and Tanzania (Maleko et al., 2018; Ndah et al., 2022). Lack of fencing and machinery for planting and fodder conservation are the major challenges for increased forage production by small-holder farmers in developing countries (Mapiye et al. (2006). Derpsch et al. (2016), concluded that failure to acquire implements such as tractors led to small-scale farmers failing to adopt conservation agriculture practices, which is similar to the challenges reported by farmers planting winter forages who were dependent on government support. Furthermore, the costs involved in establishment and management of these crops discourage farmers from winter forage cultivation. Encouraging cultivation of summer field crops such as maize in communal areas and integrating winter forages as cover crops can assist in reducing the cost of winter forage production.

Interventions that result in the transfer of knowledge, and that also address contextual hindrances to the adoption of new technologies determine the success of new technology adoption (Straub, 2009). Lack of awareness and knowledge was reported to be a major hindrance in the adoption of improved forages (Duguma & Janssens, 2016; Lukuyu et al., 2009; Ndah et al., 2022), and it was mainly attributed to limited extension services. It is therefore important to conduct training on winter forage production, highlighting its benefits as a cover crop and for winter sheep supplementation. Similar to observations in this study, the lack of financial resources to buy seeds and other inputs were a challenge experienced by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia (Duguma & Janssens, 2016). Government tillage support programmes which will promote winter forage cultivation, such as those extended to communal farmers producing maize, should be considered for sheep farmers in the Eastern cape. Conservation agriculture practices that improve soil moisture should also be encouraged to address the reported moisture constraints limiting forage production.

The limitations of this study is that few farmers practice winter forage production in communal areas, and hence the low sample size. However, the findings can be extrapolated to similar farming systems in winter rainfall areas, but not to other geographic areas. Further research should be done in more villages, other provinces, and should not be limited to winter forages but consider all planted fodder by smallholder communal farmers.

4. Conclusion and recommendations

The current study demonstrates the benefits of winter forage cultivation to communal sheep farmers, such as improved wool quality and body condition of ewes. There are, however, technical and institutional challenges that need to be addressed for the wider adoption and improved production of the forages. Those challenges include lack of knowledge and awareness of rainfed winter forage production practices, and lack of tillage resources. Oats is the dominant forage cultivated by most farmers, with very little intercropping with legumes. To produce forage of high quality, communal farmers should explore intercropping winter grasses with legume such as Vetch. Furthermore, for the successful cultivation of these forages, research on adaptable cultivars and suitable planting dates is critical. The lambing season coincides with the peak growth of most of the winter forages, hence supplying ewes with a quality diet. In addition, maize grain is used for winter supplementation, with little use of hay, suggesting diminished cultivation of maize by communal farmers.

Wool industry support has focused on improving the genetic material of communal sheep flocks through the donation of quality rams and technical training (Rust et al., 2015), and little support has been extended to nutrition. Fencing of grazing camps, and mobilizing communities to practice rotational grazing have been initiated in some villages with moderate success. The adverse effect of climate change on the availability of forage from natural rangelands in winter, and the decrease in size of rangelands due to increased encroachment of rangelands by human settlements support the significance of winter forage production. Sheep farmers should cultivate mixed pasture species as a risk-mitigating strategy in case of failure of one of the planted forage species. Increasing the uptake of winter forage cultivation could be aided by government support in the form of seed and tillage provision. This support should be responsive to the short rainfall window for the successful establishment and forage yield.

In order to promote winter forage cultivation and integrate it into communal area farming systems, we propose further studies on optimal planting dates, cost-effective utilization methods, viable species mix and tillage practices to generate information to support context-specific production strategies.

Author contributions

All authors contributed equally to the production of this manuscript and have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript

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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research received no external funding.