HACCP, quality, and food safety management in food and agricultural systems

Abstract

The burden of foodborne diseases and their associated illness/death is a global concern. Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) and food safety/quality management are employed to combat this problem. With the existing and emerging food safety/quality management concerns, this study aims to evaluate the traditional and modern/novel approach to improving HACCP, food safety, and quality management in food and agricultural systems. The modern innovations in food safety management were integrated into improving the traditional HACCP system, including its principles, applications, steps, plans, standards, etc., as well as food safety factors and management, for improved safety/quality in food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries. The study identified many factors responsible for food contamination, including chemical contaminants, such as allergens, histamine, cyanogenic glycosides, mycotoxins, toxic elements, etc., biological contaminants, such as Campylobacter, Brucella, viruses, Escherichia coli, prions, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, protozoa, parasitic pathogens, etc., and physical contaminants, such as bone, glass, metal, personal effects, plastic, stones, wood, etc. The results of this study present descriptive preliminary HACCP steps, HACCP principles, safe food handling procedures, ISO 22000, Water quality management, food labelling, etc., with recent modern developments and innovations to ensure food safety and quality management. The study also identified modern/novel technologies for HACCP and food safety management, including light technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), novel freezing (isochoric freezing), automation, and software for easy detection and control of contaminants. With all these understanding and development, the domestic, food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries can be well position to ensure safety and quality of products.

Keywords:

• food safety
• HACCP
• foodborne illness
• food quality
• good manufacturing practice (GMP)
• critical control point
• hazard analysis

1. Introduction

Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) is a food safety (also known as food hygiene) approach that employs systematic preventive methods to protect foods and consumers from chemical, physical, and biological hazards/contaminants. It is mostly applied in production processes and also in postproduction processes to ensure that no contaminant is present to make the finished products unsafe, and designs measures to reduce the risks of contaminants to safe level at most. HACCP and food safety are inseparable. Proper HACCP application is a requirement to guarantee food safety. Consequently, HACCP aims at avoiding hazards rather than inspecting the finished products for hazards’ effects or presence; HACCP is a preventive approach to ensure food safety. HACCP system is employed at all steps in a food chain, from preliminary food preparation to production processes and postproduction handling, including raw materials, production, packaging, storage, distribution, etc. Many food regulatory agencies in several countries require mandatory application of specific HACCP programs for different foods, such as meat, juice, dairy products, infant formula, seafood, canned foods, etc., in order to ensure proper food safety to protect public health and prevent the outbreak of foodborne diseases (Awuchi, Ondari, et al., 2021b; Morya et al., 2022a; Njunina, 2022). HACCP addresses many food safety concerns, including critical factors (such as water activity (aw), pH), bacterial pathogens (such as Clostridium botulinum, Escherichia coli, Listeria, Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae, Cronobacter spp, etc.), viral pathogens (such as Enterovirus, Hepatitis A, Norovirus, Rotavirus, etc.), parasitic pathogens (such as Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia, Trichinella, etc.), toxic microbial metabolites (such as mycotoxins), etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017).

Food safety employs scientific methods to preparation, handling, and storage of foods to prevent food-borne diseases/illness. Food-borne disease outbreak has been described as the occurrence of at least two cases of similar illness caused by a common food ingestion (Texas Department of State Health Services, 2015). Food safety includes many routines that have to be followed to prevent possible health hazards. As a result, food safety usually overlaps with HACCP and food defense to avoid harmful impacts on consumers. The major aim of HACCP and food safety is to ensure that the foods reaching to the consumers are safe. The tracks in this measure are safety from industries to the markets and then from markets to the consumers. The percentage of HACCP implementation should be ideally 100% across all aspects of food/feed, starting from raw materials to consumption. Implementing HACCP system involves continuous applications of the record-keeping, monitoring, corrective actions, and all activities relevant in the HACCP plan (Food Safety Kasza et al., 2022; News, 2018). Maintaining an effective HACCP system depends largely on regularly scheduled verification activities. For industry to market, food safety considers the food origin including farm practices, food hygiene, food labeling, pesticide residues, food additives, biotechnology policies, import and export inspection guidelines, and food certification systems (Food Safety Kasza et al., 2022; News, 2018). For market to consumer, food safety considers that food should be safe at market, with major concern being safe food preparation and delivery to consumers.

In addition to food industries, HACCP has been increasingly applied to other industries, including pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. HACCP only focuses on the food products’ health safety issues, and not on the product quality, although most food quality control and assurance systems are based on HACCP principles. The UN FAO/WHO published a HACCP and food safety guidelines for all governments and food industries to handle the safety issues in food businesses, including small and developing businesses (UN FAO, 2022a,b). Food safety is very crucial, as it is inextricably linked with food security, nutrition, and a healthy population. Over 600 million people (roughly 1 in 10 people worldwide) become ill following the consumption of contaminated food, while420000die per year as a result, leading to the loss of over 33 million healthy life years (WHO, 2022). In low- and middle-income nations, 110 billion US Dollars is lost every year in medical expenses and loss of productivity due to unsafe food. Children below the age of 5 carry 40% of the burden of foodborne disease, with125000dying each year (WHO, 2022). Foodborne diseases hamper economic and social development by harming national economies, overstraining health care systems, trade, etc.

This study aims at evaluating the traditional and modern/novel approach to improving HACCP, food safety, and quality management in food handling and agricultural systems. The recent innovations in food safety were integrated into improving the traditional HACCP system, including its principles, applications, steps, plans, standards, etc., as well as food safety factors, measures, and management, for improved safety and quality in food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries. Many factors responsible for food contamination and they can be contained were extensively covered. The procedures for safe food handling, along with novel technologies to integrate into food safety management and HACCP, are critically and systematically covered. This study will spur the adoption of innovative approaches to HACCP and food safety management in this contemporary and beyond. It integrates the traditional approaches to HACCP and food safety with the recent innovations for improving HACCP, quality, and food safety management systems, which closely intertwined.

1. Materials and methods

1.1. Search methods

We thoroughly searched relevant databases such as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, PubMed/MEDLINE, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UN FAO), Google, and other relevant scientific databases using the following key terms: (“HACCP” OR “Food Safety Management” OR “Foodborne Diseases” OR “Food Safety and Quality”) AND (“Natural Materials for Safety Management” OR “Modern/Novel Technologies for HACCP and Food Safety Management”).

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the traditional and modern/novel approach to improving HACCP, food safety, and quality management in food and agricultural systems. It aims to guide domestic, local, and multinational industries on the novels ways to ensure proper food safety and quality management along with HACCP application. The result of the study is relevant to researchers, students, food/feed handlers, and policymakers who are working in related areas.

1.2. Inclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria include: Firstly, the article must have been published in a peer-reviewed source. Secondly, it must have used appropriate research methods and reported the HACCP or Food safety management or both. Only articles published in English language or other languages but translated to English language were considered. More focus was given to recently published articles, with some considerations on relevant articles published some years ago with no year restrictions, and then followed the development over the years. We evaluated the title, abstract, methodology, and references of each article.

1.3. Exclusion criteria

Articles that do not focus on HACCP, food safety, or Food quality management were excluded. Additionally, articles that focused on HACCP, food safety, or Food quality management, but not from peer-reviewed sources were excluded. In case of duplicate articles, only one was retained.

2. Food contamination and prevention measures

Foods are contaminated when at least one unwanted/unsafe substance is found in them, which can happen during production, sales, cooking, packaging, transportation, and storage, as well before and during harvest. Food contamination can be chemical, physical, or biological (Food and Drug Administration, 2017). In this section, the factors that can contaminate foods are presented.

2.1. Chemical contamination

Foods can be contaminated with natural and/or artificial/added chemicals. Examples of natural chemicals that can occur in foods include allergens, scombrotoxin (histamine), cyanogenic glycosides, mycotoxins (such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, citrinin, fumonisins, etc.), phytohaemagglutinin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), marine biotoxins, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP), ciguatoxin, paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), shellfish toxins, mushroom toxins, etc. (Morya et al., 2022b; Rather et al., 2017). Added chemicals that can occur in foods include agricultural chemicals (growth hormones, pesticides, fertilizers, antibiotics), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), toxic elements (lead, cyanide, cadmium, zinc, arsenic, mercury), prohibited substances, food additives, contaminants (sanitizers, pest control chemicals, lubricants, water or steam treatment chemicals, refrigerants, coatings, cleaners, paints), from packaging materials (tin, adhesives, lead, plasticizers, coding/printing inks, vinyl chloride), etc. (Bushra et al., 2022; Rather et al., 2017). Chemical contaminants can come from sources such as herbicides, veterinary drugs, pesticides, environmental sources (air, water, and/or soil pollution), cross-contamination, migration from packaging material, natural toxins, adulterants, and/or unapproved food additives (UN FAO, 2022b).

Natural toxins and environmental contaminants are of most concern to health. Commonly consumed staple foods such as grains (e.g., corn, peanut, wheat, etc.) can contain mycotoxins in unsafe levels, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, trichothecenes, etc., produced by mould that colonize crops before, during, and after harvest (Awuchi, Nwozo et al., 2022,; Awuchi, Ondari, et al., 2022). A long-term exposure can affect the immune system and normal development, or cause cancer (Awuchi 2022b). Another group of chemical contaminants called persistent organic pollutants (POPs) accumulate in human and the environment. Common examples include PCBs and dioxins that are undesirable by-products of waste incineration and industrial processes (Bushra et al., 2022; Rather et al., 2017). They occur in the environment all around the world and bioaccumulate in food chains, mostly animal foods. Dioxins exert high toxicity and can damage the immune functions, cause developmental and reproductive problems, cause cancer, and interfere with hormones (WHO, 2022). Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and cadmium, cause kidney and neurological damage. Food contamination by heavy metal mostly occur through soil and water pollution (Bushra et al., 2022; Sarker et al., 2017). Other chemical hazards that can occur in foods include food allergens, radioactive nucleotides discharged by industries and military/civil nuclear operations, as well as drug residues and other contaminants that contaminate the food during food processing.

2.2. Physical contamination

Physical contamination of foods occurs as “foreign bodies” in form of objects such as plant stalks, glasses, hair, plastics, jewelry, metals, pests, stones, fingernails, sand, dirt, etc. (Bushra et al., 2022; Sarker et al., 2017). Foreign objects in foods are physical contaminants. If the foreign object is a microorganism, it is considered as both physical and biological contamination. Common physical contaminants, their sources and potential injuries are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Physical contaminants

Material	Major sources	Harm
Bone	Poor processing	Choking, injury in the mouth
Glass	Jars, bottles, gauge covers, light fixtures, plates, utensils, cups, etc.	Cuts and bleeding often occur; the glass may require surgery to remove or even to find
Insulation	Building materials	Causes choking; may be long-term and cause cancer if asbestos
Metal	Wire, workers, fields, machinery	Cuts, can cause infection and bleeding, and may require surgery to remove or even to find
Personal effects	Workers	Cuts, choking, smashing teeth
Plastic	Packaging, equipment, pallets, containers	Choking, infection, cuts, exposure to endocrine disruptors, and may require surgery to remove or even to find
Stones, sand	Buildings, Fields	Broken teeth, chocking, and may require surgery to remove or even to find
Wood	Pallets, building materials, boxes, field	Choking, infection, cuts, and may require surgery to remove or even to find

2.3. Biological contamination

Biological contamination occurs when foods are contaminated by substances or materials produced by living creatures, including rodents, humans, microorganisms, or pests. Common biological contaminations include bacterial contamination, fungal contamination, microbial metabolites (e.g., mycotoxins), parasite contamination, viral contamination, etc., which can be transferred through fecal matter, blood, pest droppings, saliva, etc., and may also contaminate foods before harvest, during storage, and even during processing (Gallo et al., 2020; Modi et al., 2021). While bacterial contamination is most common food poisoning in the world, fungi and their metabolites are more common in grains. Bacteria likely survive in an environment with high starch, protein, oxygen, water, neutral pH, and/or maintains 5°C to 60°C temperature (danger zone) for even 0 to 20 minutes.

A typical example of biological contamination was reported in tainted romaine lettuce in the US. In April to May 2018, twenty states in the US reported the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7 outbreak (Food Safety News, 2018). Many investigations reported that source of the contamination may have been the growing region of Yuma, Arizona. The outbreak started on April 10, and was reported as the largest flare-up of E. coli in the US in the past decade. Some died in California as a result (Food Safety News, 2018). At least 14 of the people affected developed kidney failure. Common E. coli symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, and nausea.

2.3.1. Pathogenic bacteria

Bacteria are among the common microorganisms that contaminate foods. Both pathogenic spore-forming and non-spore-forming bacteria have been implicated in food contamination. Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, etc. are common spore-forming bacteria that can contaminate foods. Non-spore forming pathogenic bacteria that contaminate foods include Campylobacter spp., Brucella suis, Brucella abortis, etc. Other bacteria that commonly contaminate foods include Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enteriditis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Vibrio cholerae, Listeria monocytogenes, etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017; WHO, 2022). These bacterial strains have been a major problem to food safety and public health.

Salmonella, enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli, and Campylobacter are among the most common foodborne pathogens affecting millions every year, with severe and even fatal outcomes occurring. Symptoms can present as diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, vomiting, nausea, headache, etc. (Gallo et al., 2020). Common foods involved in salmonellosis outbreaks include products of animal origin such as poultry, eggs, etc. Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli is often borne by foods such as undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk, contaminated fresh vegetables, and contaminated fresh fruits. Foodborne occurrence of Campylobacter is mostly reported in foods such as raw/undercooked poultry, raw milk, drinking water, etc. (WHO, 2022). Symptoms of exposure to these pathogens can range from mild to severe, and even death.

Vibrio cholerae (causative agent of Cholera) commonly infects individuals exposed to contaminated water or food. Symptoms of exposure to V. cholerae include vomiting, abdominal pain, profuse watery diarrhoea, severe dehydration, and even death (WHO, 2022). Water, vegetables, rice, various types of seafood, and millet gruel are implicated in the outbreak of cholera. The risk of cholera can be prevented by improving sanitation, access to clean water, and improving food hygiene. Cholera affects 3 to 5 million people worldwide, and causes 28,800 to 130,000 deaths annually (Wang et al., 2016). It is more common in developing and underdeveloped parts of the world.

Listeria infections can cause newborn babies’ death and miscarriage in pregnant women. Their occurrence is low, but Listeria’s severity and fatality, especially among children, infants, and the elderly, put them in the list of the most severe foodborne infections (Gallo et al., 2020). Listeria usually occur in unpasteurised milk and dairy products, as well as may be found in several ready-to-eat foods, and could thrive at refrigeration temperatures (Awuchi et al., 2020).

There are measures to contain the presence of bacterial pathogens in food systems. Antimicrobials, e.g., antibiotics, are essentially used to treat bacterial infections, including foodborne bacterial pathogens (Modi et al., 2021). Howbeit, their misuse and excessive use in humans and animals has led to the spread/emergence of resistant bacteria, consequently reducing the effectiveness of infectious diseases treatment in humans and animals. Many recent food safety measures have considered novel ways of containing bacterial pathogens in food systems before and after they get to consumers. Plants and plant materials, such as coriander, rosemary, oregano, sage, lemongrass, garlic, vanillin, parsley, citral, clove, cinnamon, essential oils, etc., have been in use alone or in combination for their antimicrobial/antibacterial properties, and can also be combined with other techniques used in food processing and preservation (Awuchi, 2023a; Quinto et al., 2019). The antibacterial properties of combined food-grade compounds, along with their applications as alternative bactericidal agents in food contact surfaces have been reported (Park et al., 2020). Park et al. (2020) formulated multicomponent mixture of antibacterial food materials containing Camellia sinensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, ε-polylysine, and citric acid, and studied its antibacterial activities against Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella enteritidis, E. coli, and Staphylococcus aureus on many food contact surfaces. At 0.25% concentration, the mixture decreased the viable cell count by at least 5 log Colony Forming Unit per area; 24 h after treatment, there was complete inactivation (Park et al., 2020). There has promising application in food safety management. In another study, Dong et al. (2022) concluded that a combination of fructooligosaccharides and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum inhibits the invasion, growth, virulence, and adhesion of Listeria monocytogenes. Kavitha et al. (2021) synthesized silver nanoparticles from plant extracts for enhancing food safety, and reported that the antibacterial properties of the silver nanoparticles have promising application in food safety management. In another study, Zahnit et al. (2022) reported the phytochemical properties, biological activities, and mineral elements of artemisia campestris, all of which can be explored for application in food safety management. Figure 1 shows natural antimicrobial sources that can help prevent or reduce the presence of pathogens, including bacterial pathogens, to ensure adequate food safety.

Figure 1. Natural antimicrobial sources for food safety application.

2.3.2. Viral pathogens

Many viruses, including Norovirus, Sapoviruses, Enterovirus, Adenoviruses, Astroviruses, Rotavirus, Hepatitis A, etc., can infect humans and animals who consume viral contaminated foods. Norovirus is among the common causes of foodborne infections; it is characterized by watery diarrhoea, nausea, abdominal pain, explosive vomiting, etc. (Tsimpidis et al., 2017). Norovirus often spread from fecal to oral route through consuming contaminated foods (such as oysters, clams, etc.) or water, or through human-to-human contact (Brunette, 2017). Hepatitis A virus can be foodborne, causing prolong liver disease, and typically spreads through undercooked or raw foods such as seafood (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017).

Many measures have been considered to contain viral exposures via foods (Sherwood et al., 2020). Food-grade polymeric materials and antiviral compounds are among the leading options tailored to improve food safety management, both as novel packaging materials/components exerting active antiviral activities and/or as edible coating materials/components to increase fresh shelf life of food commodities (Priyadarshi et al., 2022; Randazzo et al., 2018). Enteric viral infections are responsible for over 20% of acute cases of gastroenteritis globally, and the formulation of food-grade biopolymers with antiviral properties has garnered interest to contain the risk of exposure. Many nanoparticles have been shown to have antiviral properties applicable to food safety. Antiviral properties of many nanoparticles, including metal (gold, silver), quantum dots, graphene oxide, metallic oxide (copper oxide, zinc oxide), functionalized nanoparticles, mesoporous silicon, etc., have been described and applied in food systems for food safety management. Natural compounds, including plant extracts, phytochemicals, essential oils, etc., have gained attention as novel antiviral materials in food applications (Awuchi et al., 2023). The functionality of plant extracts and essential oils is mainly determined by the bioactive compounds (phytochemicals) in them, especially the polyphenols. Most of these bioactive compounds are generally recognized as safe (GRAS), and suitable for consumption with little or no side effects. For influenza virus, many essential oils from artemisia, salvia, and oregano were studied and reported to be effective against viral agents (Parham et al., 2020). Lignin and its products have also shown to be promising antiviral properties (Shu et al., 2021). Awuchi et al. (2023) described the bioactives and phytochemicals with antiviral properties that can be applied in food safety management. Polyanionic biopolymers, e.g., sulfated polysaccharides such as heparin, agar, and dextran sulfate, have excellent antiviral properties that can be applied in food systems. Several biopolymers such as hyaluronic acid, chitosan, heparin, chondroitin polysulfate, dextran sulfate, carrageenan, cellulose sulfate, sulfoevernan, etc. (Bianculli et al., 2020). Antiviral compounds from plants, e.g., resveratrol, commonly exert dose-dependent deterrence against viral replication/growth. The strains of HSV1 virus can be inhibited by the essential oils from Salvia desoleana, while the essential oils of Syzygium aromaticum (clove) are effective against herpes adenovirus, coxsackievirus, poliovirus, etc. (Priyadarshi et al., 2022). Combining essential oils from Melissa officinalis and oseltamivir had synergistic antiviral properties against influenza virus H9N2 (Pourghanbari et al., 2016). The extracts of Tribulus terrestris contain many flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins, making them bioactive and exert antiviral effects against HIV (Parham et al., 2020). While peanut skin (with resveratrol as active compound) has been shown to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication, turmeric (Curcuma longa [with curcumin as active compound]) has anti-HIV activity (Awuchi et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2020). The biological activities of curcumin, including its antiviral activity, have been reported in many studies (Roy et al., 2021). The extracts of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Cinnamomum verum) have high antiviral activities against influenza virus (Parham et al., 2020).

2.3.3. Protozoa and parasitic pathogens

Some parasites, including trematodes transmitted by fish, can only be transmitted via food. Others such as tapeworms, e.g., Taenia spp, Echinococcus spp, etc., can also be transmitted through food or direct contact with animals (WHO, 2022). A vast majority of protozoa are waterborne. Parasites, including Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum, Ascaris lumbricoides, etc., enter the food chain through water, soil, and/or by contaminating fresh produce. Taenia solium, Diphyllobothrium latum, Trichinella spiralis, Taenia saginata, etc., are other common examples (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). Pathogenic protozoa are mostly transmitted through food in developing nations, with relatively rare occurrence of their foodborne outbreaks in developed world. However, in developed countries, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Toxoplasma, etc. are among the major protozoa of concern, and mostly pose a problem to people with compromised immune system. Berhe et al. (2018) reported foodborne intestinal protozoan infections among patients with watery diarrhea in Northern Ethiopia. The prevalence of the protozoa infection was 45.3%, with Entamoeba histolytica/dispar (24.7%) being the predominant protozoa species, followed by Giardia intestinalis and Cryptosporidium species at 11.2% and 2.2% respectively (Berhe et al., 2018).

Many antiprotozoal food materials have been demonstrated to have promising application for food safety management against protozoa and parasites. In a study, the ethanolic extracts from Grias neuberthii bark and Costus curvibracteatus leaves had strong activity in vitro against L. donovani and the resistant and sensitive strain of P. falciparum, and a moderate activity against T. brucei gambiense (P. Vásquez-Ocmín et al., 2018). A different study also reported that after annotating compounds active against Leishmania, followed by their metabolomic analyses, P. pseudoarboreum and P. strigosum were recommended as sources of viable leishmanicidal compounds (P. G. Vásquez-Ocmín et al., 2021). Many food-grade materials including polysaccharides, essential oils, flavonoids, triterpenoid saponines, clerodane-type diterpenes, salicylic acid derivatives, and phenols in plants such as those in Asteraceae, have several biological activities against parasites (Awuchi & Morya). Batiha et al. (2020) that the acetone extracts of R. Coriaria and the methanolic extracts of B. vulgaris restricted the replication of Theileria equi, Babesia caballi, B. divergens, B. bigemina, and B. bovis at IC₅₀ range of 0.68 ± 0.1 to 85.7 ± 3.1 µg/mL (Batiha et al., 2020). Food-grade antiprotozoal and antiparasitic materials and compounds can be successfully applied to contain protozoa and parasites in food systems.

2.3.4. Prions

Prions are protein-composed infectious agents associated with certain neurodegenerative diseases. Mad cow disease (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy) is a cattle disease caused by prion, and is associated with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, which is the most common prion disease that affect human. The consumption of meat products contaminated with specified risk material, e.g., brain tissue, remains the main route of transmitting prions to humans (WHO, 2022). A prion is a type of protein that can trigger normal proteins in the brain to fold abnormally. Prion diseases can affect both humans and animals and are sometimes spread to humans by infected meat products (Holznagel et al., 2015). Ethanolamine has been described as a novel compound with anti-prion activities (Uchiyama et al., 2021). Cooking and many processing methods have no destructive effects on the prion that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The precautions recommended to reduce the transmission risk of infections cause by prion when processing or handling animals include not eating or handling animals, such as deer, cattle, etc., that are dead by unknown cause, act strangely, or appear sick (Requena et al., 2016; Uchiyama et al., 2021). The most important way of avoiding prion infection is simply by avoiding their presence in food materials before and after processing.

3. Preliminary steps in HACCP

There are preliminary steps employed in HACCP planning for food safety and quality management to prevent or at least reduce the presence of the food contaminants. Planning food safety measures for a HACCP system takes much well-thought-out time, consideration, and processes, with overall goal being to ensure safe food by eliminating the presence of food contaminants, including biological, physical, and chemical contaminants. Before the major HACCP principles are designed, there are minimum of five preliminary steps required for a HACCP system, which aim to prepare an initial comprehensive HACCP plan. In a HACCP system, food safety management can be process- or product-specific and is more safety-tailored than quality, thus requiring certain level of expertise (Njunina, 2022). Along with these preliminary five steps, the teams in charge of food safety must put in place sanitary and safe conditions for prerequisite programs. These sanitary and safe operation conditions establish the basic conditions for producing safe food product, and should include employee health, effective maintenance programs, employee training, waste management, food hygiene, pest control, etc. These prerequisite programs control unsafe operating conditions, thus preventing foodborne hazards (Tuyet Hanh & Hanh, 2020).

3.1. Building HACCP team

The first step in the development of the process of a HACCP plan is to assemble a group of experts with sufficient expertise in many food processes or the product under consideration. The HACCP team members may contain members from ingredients/raw material handling, processing/production department, quality department, food production office, chemical and microbiological testing laboratories, etc. (UN FAO, 2022a,b). The team should compose of multidisciplinary experts with strong knowledge of the manufacturing process. These experts may come from the sanitation, production, engineering, research and development, and quality control departments (Njunina, 2022). Having workers at all levels participate in HACCP team membership can benefit the overall food safety management system. What is important is that they know the important criteria for food safety from their respective departments. The principles upon which HACCP is built are based on the prevention of potential hazard during the food manufacturing processes. Consequently, in food processing plants, in-line workers with effective and substantial training see in real-time everything taking place during manufacturing processes, and can offer valued inputs. Part of responsibilities of the team include identifying and analyzing potential food safety hazard, establishing critical limits, monitor and record events, establishing critical control points, creating corrective actions, establishing standard parameters, etc. All the members must know what the possible food safety concerns and potential hazards are.

3.2. Define the food and its distributions

After putting a HACCP team in place for specific product, the food has to be comprehensively defined in consideration to the 7 HACCP principles (Chiba, 2022). Defining the food in this context means enlisting all the food ingredients along with the derivatives it might have, and the basic process conditions for the product manufacturing. At this point, thorough knowledge of the food product is critical. All the ingredients and any likely component must be described and analysed, as their by-products may possibly become hazards or concerns in the manufacturing process (Chiba, 2022; Popova et al., 2016). As food components are most likely to react with the added ingredients or their constituents, every possible interaction or reaction should be well noted and profiled for possibly safety concern. Describing these ingredients and the food product’s characteristics would help the HACCP team to analyse proper conditions for distribution. Some food products, e.g., ready-to-eat foods, packaged in certain containers such as lunch boxes can become spoiled under distribution at increased internal and surrounding temperatures (Bosch et al., 2018; Popova et al., 2016). The minimum and maximum temperature requirements for the transportation of foods must be declared for safety control purpose.

3.3. Identify the end use and consumers of the product

In the preliminary step to the principles, the HACCP team should be saddled with the responsibility of identifying the target product consumers and the people that must be receive cautionary warning in consuming the food product (Atambayeva, Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva, Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova, Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a; Medeiros et al., 2022). In contrast to the target consumers, people with possible hypersensitivity to the product have to be identified and warned accordingly (Medeiros et al., 2022; Weinroth et al., 2018). Among the vulnerable groups may include immunocompromised patients, pregnant individuals, infants, the elderly, lactating mothers, those with illness, etc. Before applying the HACCP principles, identifying the target consumers and end use of the product helps prevent any issues related to food safety.

3.4. Develop a flow diagram (block-type) that describes the process

To appropriately outline all the intended product-related processes, the team has to develop a detailed flow diagram that considers all the processes involved in the production scheme. This block-type diagram need not to be expertly in design. The most important thing is that all processes, conditions, and methods are described for thorough assessment (Njunina, 2022). This helps to determine the process that can be a potential source of hazard (Atambayeva, Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva, Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova, Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a; Medeiros et al., 2022). In a proper flow diagram, every potential safety risks must have safety measure/step to eliminate the risks or reduce them to acceptable limits/levels.

3.5. Flow diagram verification

The flow diagram needs to be verified, by verifying the step in designed HACCP plan, aiming at ensuring all subsequent steps have been captured in the block-type flow diagram (Mureşan et al., 2020; Vu-Ngoc et al., 2018). This can be done by undertaking logical sequence of observations or on-site physical assessment, and noting down the processes that must be captured in this flow diagram.

4. HACCP principles to ensure food safety measures

4.1. Hazard analysis determination

The first thing to have in your mind is to conduct hazard analysis. This will include a plan to evaluating the potential food safety hazards, and identifying preventive measures to apply for controlling the hazards (Mureşan et al., 2020; Vu-Ngoc et al., 2018). A food safety hazard has been described as any physical, biological, and/or chemical property that can make a food unsafe for consumption.

4.2. Identification of critical control points (CCPs)

Critical control point (CCP) is any step, procedure, or point in the manufacturing process, where control is applicable to prevent or eliminate food safety hazard, or at least reduce it to acceptable level. To determine a critical control point, the following question can help; at this preparation step, can the food get contaminated or can there be increase in contamination? (Maina et al., 2021; Mureşan et al., 2020). Figure 2 shows steps that can help identify a CCP (Team Safesite, 2020).

Figure 2. Decision tree for CCP identification the HACCP team can make use of (adapted from team Safesite, 2020).

4.3. There has to be critical limits established for every CCP

The critical limit is the minimum or maximum value to which a chemical, biological, or physical hazard must be controlled at a CCP to prevent or eliminate hazard, or at least reduce it to acceptable level (Team Maina et al., 2021; Safesite, 2020). Common examples of critical limit in CCP are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Examples of critical limits in CCP

Critical limit	Critical control point	Hazards
Histamine levels of 25 ppm maximum in evaluating tuna for histamine	Receiving	Histamine
Heating at 72°C for not less than 15 seconds	Pasteurization	Non-sporulating pathogenic bacteria
Metal fragments of at least 0.5 mm	Metal detector	Metal trashes
Legible label that contains list of all ingredients	Labelling	Allergens
Water activity less than 0.85 for growth control in dried food products	Drying oven	Pathogenic bacteria
Sodium nitrite at 200 ppm maximum in finished products	Brining, curing room	Excess nitrite
pH 4.6 limit for Clostridium botulinum control in acidified food	Acidification stage	Pathogenic bacteria

4.4. Establish monitoring requirements for CCP

Monitoring is required to make sure that there is control on the process at every CCP. It may also be required that each procedure for monitoring and its frequency are enlisted in the HACCP plan. Factors that can be considered in establishing monitoring requirements for CCP include: quantity of products at risk if deviation occurs at a critical control point; tolerance level between critical limit and operating limit; variations in product and process; manual or automated processes; history of previous checks, etc. (Raji et al., 2021; U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2022). HACCP Principles & Application Guidelines. Adopted 1997).

4.5. Establish corrective action

Corrective actions have to be established as actions that would be taken when the monitoring system shows deviations from the critical limit established. It is required that HACCP plan of a plant identifies the corrective actions if there is nonconformity to the critical limit. These actions are also meant to make sure that no food product is harmful to human or adulterated thereof if this deviation finds its way into the market (Atambayeva, Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva, Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova, Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a; Hung et al., 2015). Implementing corrective actions on the HACCP system in industries will improve the safety and quality of foods, while enhancing the production management (Hung et al., 2015).

4.6. Establish verification and validation procedures to ensure the HACCP system works as planned

Validation and verification procedures help to ensure the HACCP system is working as expected. Validation procedures in HACCP ensure that the manufacturing plants are doing what they are meant for, with more emphasis on safety rather than quality, meaning that they achieve the aim of ensuring the manufacturing of safe products (Atambayeva, Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva, Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova, Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a; Hung et al., 2015). Every plant should be responsible for validating its own HACCP plan, this should be followed with review by independent higher experts in the industry who will approve or disapprove the HACCP plan in advance, and also review the validation plan to ensure conformity. On the other hand, verification procedures ensure the adequacy of the HACCP plan, and is working as planned. HACCP verification is described as the activities, outside monitoring, which establish the HACCP plans validity and ensure that the system of HACCP is operating as planned (Schmidt & Newslow, 2019). Verification procedure can include activities such as reviewing HACCP plans, critical limits, microbial sampling/analysis, CCP records, critical control points. It is required that HACCP plan include clear and concise verification tasks that should be done by the plant personnel. The industry must undertake microbial analysis/testing as a component of many verification activities. Verification also integrates validation, which centers on finding factual indication for the HACCP system accuracy; this should be scientific evidence with more emphasis on critical limitations (Ceylan et al., 2021; Schmidt & Newslow, 2019). Verification procedures determine if the procedures used in the analysis are adequate and applied as laid out in the HACCP plans (Schmidt & Newslow, 2019).

4.7. Establish procedures for record keeping

The regulation and sustainability of HACCP require the maintenance of maintain documents in all plants, including written HACCP plan, hazard analysis, as well as records for monitoring CCPs, verification activities, critical limits, and corrective actions for deviations. Implementation involves verifying, monitoring, and validating daily work that complies with regulatory standards and requirements all the time in all the stages (UN FAO, 2022a,b). Figure 3 summarizes the 7 principles of HACCP for easy overview of all the principles involved in HACCP.

Figure 3. HACCP principles should be applied as shown; the process is cyclic and continues throughout.

The application of these seven HACCP principles has been reliable for food safety management. The seven basic HACCP principles should be applied in HACCP plans development to meet the required goal of delivering safe foods to the consumers. These HACCP based principles offer cost effective system for food safety control, starting from ingredients/raw material handling to production, food storage, product distribution to the final consumer. The implementation of these HACCP principles will control any potential hazards found in foods and consequently reduce the risks to consumers

5. Safe food handling procedures (from farm to market to consumer)

Safe food handling ensures that foods are handled in ways that guarantee food safety and reduce risks to consumers. Safe handling of foods from farm to consumer ensures adequate food safety management and delivery of safe product. Sanitary tools, good hygienic work spaces, proper storage, proper heating and cooling to the required temperatures, and avoiding cross contamination can significantly decrease the possibility of food contamination. Hermetically sealed containers with excellent air and water barriers are good measures to drastically reduce the possibilities of physical, biological, and chemical contamination under storage/shelf (Lema et al., 2020; Negassa et al., 2022; Tadele et al., 2022). The use of clean, sanitary tools and surfaces, free of chemicals, debris, standing liquids, etc., can reduce the possibility of any contamination.

Five major principles of food hygiene, include (Lema et al., 2020; Negassa et al., 2022):

1. Foods should be cooked at the appropriate temperature and length of time to kill pathogens.

2. There should be prevention of food contamination with pathogens, including the pathogens that spread from pets, people, and pests.

3. Prevent cross contamination by separating cooked foods from raw foods. Foods that are meant to be eaten without further cooking/processing should also be separated from other raw foods.

4. Foods should be stored at the appropriate temperature.

5. Safe raw materials and safe water should be used in food processing.

However, even after taking all the precautions and applying all the food safety measures, with the food safely prepared/stored, microorganisms (pathogens), including bacteria, fungi, etc., can still form after some period of time under storage. Food should be eaten within 1 to 7 days while stored under cold environment, or 1 to 12 months if under frozen environment and immediately frozen after preparation. The period after which a food becomes unsafe for consumption depends on each food, method of storage, the surrounding environment, and the food composition (Rajakrishnan et al., 2022; Tadele et al., 2022). Perishable foods should be always be refrigerated within 2 hrs; for a temperature above 32.2°C (90°F), 1 hour will do. Ideally, the refrigeration temperature should be ≤4.4°C, while the freezer at ≤-17.7°C. For instance, liquid foods such as soup stored under a hot slow cooker at 65°C or 149°F may have a few hours shelf life before getting contaminated, while fresh meats such as lamb, beef, chicken, etc., that are frozen promptly at −2°C can last for a year.

Geographical locations can be another considerable factor if they are very close to wildlife (Rajakrishnan et al., 2022; Tadele et al., 2022). Rodents, insects, etc. can infiltrate a prep area or a container if they are unattended. Foods stored while exposed to the environment have to be hygienically inspected prior to consumption, especially when it may possibly come in contact with insects, contaminated air, rodents, flies, and other animals. It is important to consider all forms of biological, chemical, and physical contamination before concluding if foods are safe or unsafe for consumption, as certain contaminants leave no visible signs, but pose deleterious risk to the consumers (Awuchi et al., 2021a, 2021b; Rajakrishnan et al., 2022). Microorganisms are usually unseen to the unaided eye, chemicals could be clear but tasteless, physical contaminants can be underneath food surface, and the contaminated foods may not have any change in appearance, taste, texture, and/or smell, and may still be heavily contaminated (Awuchi & Amagwula, 2021; Awuchi et al., 2021c; Rajakrishnan et al., 2022; Tuglo et al., 2021). Foods considered to be contaminated have to be gotten rid of as soon as possible, and any food close to them have to be thoroughly checked for any form of contamination. As many microorganisms are airborne, including some food pathogens, any foods exposed to the air should be checked for safety, and may also under heating before consumption.

6. ISO 22000 and HACCP standards in food safety management

The global community has set standards for food safety management. ISO 22000 was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a standard that deals with food safety management (“FAO/WHO,” 2021; International Organization for Standardization, 2022). The ISO 22000, first published in 2005, is generally derived from ISO 9000, and is an international standard that specifies a food safety management system’s requirements involving HACCP principles (Figure 3), interactive communication, prerequisite programs, and system management. It is a combination of all the earlier attempts from many areas/sources of food safety concerns to provide food products that are as safe and as free as possible from contaminants, including pathogens (International Organization for Standardization, 2022). Standards are reviewed every five years to determine whether a revision is necessary, to ensure that the standards remain as relevant and useful to businesses as possible (International Organization for Standardization, 2022). The 7 HACCP principles (see, Figure 3) are included in the ISO 22000 international standard. The standard is a complete quality and food safety management system integrating the elements of HACCP principles, prerequisite programmes (SSOP and GMP), and quality management, all of which together form the Total Quality Management system of an organization. ISO 22000 is related to the “Food Code” or the Codex Alimentarius, which is a collection of international standards, codes of practice, and guidelines to protect consumer health and ensure food trade’s fair practices. Other schemes recognized by the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), including the Safe Quality Food Institute’s SQF Code, rely on HACCP methods as the basis to develop and maintain food safety and food quality plans/programs in concert with the GMPs’ fundamental prerequisites. Many countries have different agencies and parastatals that oversee the application of HACCP. Table 3 shows an example of a HACCP plan.

Table 3. Typical HACCP plan for a canned mushroom, as guide to planning HACCP

Steps in processing	Critical limits	Descriptions of hazard	Procedures for monitoring	Actions against deviation	HACCP documentation or records
Inspection and depalletizing of cans	Manufacturer’s specification;no defects	Contamination after processing due to incorrect and damaged cans, as well as cans with serious defect	Constant visual monitoring by operator and depalletizers	The operator removes damaged cans, incorrect cans, and seriously defected cans, and informs quality controlofficer to withhold the remainder of pallets for quality investigation	Low vacuum detector and empty container cull reports
Inspection and depalletizing of cans and raw materials	No harmful extraneous materials (HEM)	HEM, such as metal, glass, wood and fragments	Constant visual monitoring by operator and depalletizers	The operator removes cans with HEM, and informs quality controlofficer to withhold the remainder of pallets for quality investigation	Empty container cull reports
Weighing stage	Maximum weight of fill as per scheduled process	Overfilling causing under-processing	Online check-weigher to eject over- and underfilled cans after filling	Operator manually adjusts ejected can weight by taking away or adding mushrooms	Daily grading and fill control report
Headspace	Lowest headspace as described in planned process	Inadequate headspace that causes excess distorted seams and internal pressure	Check on headspace carried out after consecutive samples’ closing, one or more from every head, by the seam mechanic at commencement and hourly	Closing mechanic adjusts headspaces and informs QCto hold investigate every product run starting from the last acceptable results	Daily grading and double seam inspection reports
End feeding/closing/inspecting	Can manufacturer’s specifications No serious problems	Post-process contamination resulting from damaged or defective ends or improper double seams	Continuous visual monitoring of ends by closing machine operator	Closing machine operator to remove any damaged or defective ends and to inform QCOperator to hold and QC to investigate ends and sealed cans if necessary	Daily seamer report.Double seam inspection reportLow vacuum detector reportContainer integrity inspection report
Heat processing	Highest time lapse between retort up and closing, minimum temperature/time for cooking and venting as specified by scheduled process. Thermal-sensitive indicators change colour	Insufficient heat application	QC checks on time lapse between retort up and closing once or more every period. Retort operator checks temperature and time for cooking, venting, and thermograph. Busse unloader checks thermal-sensitive indicator tape and also segregates products if there is no indicator tape or change in the colour of indicator tape	Retort operators adjust the temperature and time of cooking according to the approved contingency plan and inform QCto hold and investigate all products that may have deviated	Thermograph charts, retort operator’s log,heat-sensitive indicator log, and low vacuum detector reports
Cooling	Detectable levels of residual chlorine to 2 ppm in water used for cooling	Contamination after product processing from cooling water	Checks for chlorine hourly at the cooling water exit	Retort operator adjusts chlorine and informs QCto hold and investigate all products run after the last acceptable check	Low vacuum detector reports and retort operator’s log

7. Food labeling

Food labels play important role in food safety management and consumer awareness campaign. The Codex Alimentarius guidelines state that “packaged food must be labelled with the name of the food, list of ingredients, and its net contents, as well as the name and address of the manufacturer, distributor, importer, exporter/vendor, country of origin, lot identification, date marking and storage instructions, and instructions for use” (Arendt, 2022; Mandell & Arendt, 2022). Foods in many countries have at least one label that indicates the nature of product deterioration and any consequent health issue that may arise (Forsyth, 2021; Mandell & Arendt, 2022). Food hygiene or HACCP certification is usually required for preparation and distribution of foods. While there may not be specific expiry date for such certification or legislation changes, it is expected to be updated every 5-year intervals. In labels, “best before” shows a date in the future beyond which the products may lose their quality such as taste, texture, nutrient loss, etc., but does not suggest serious health concerns if the food is consumed after this “best before” date within reasonable limit (Arendt, 2022; Forsyth, 2021; Mandell & Arendt, 2022). “Use by” shows a legal date after which it is not permitted to sell the product, often one that rapidly deteriorates after been manufactured, because of the potential severity consuming pathogens (Maio et al., 2020; Zielińska et al., 2020). Sometimes leeway is given by manufacturers in including display until dates for products not to be at their safe consumption limit on the stated actual date; being voluntary, the latter is often not under regulatory control, allowing for the variation in production, display, and storage methods.

Except baby foods and infant formula which must be withdrawn at the expiration date, laws in many countries do not require or mandate expiry date (Mandell & Arendt, 2022; Nicewicz & Bilska, 2022). For most foods, with the exception of dairy products, freshness dating can be voluntary. As a response to consumer demands, sell by dates are usually indicated on the labels of perishable products. Consumers decide how long products are usable after sell by dates. Other dating statements that are common include Pack date, Best if used by, Guaranteed fresh date, Use-by date, etc. (Maio et al., 2020; Mandell & Arendt, 2022; Nicewicz & Bilska, 2022; Zielińska et al., 2020). If used, freshness dating has to be validated with the guidelines of AOAC. Labelling should be properly used in food safety management and consumer awareness.

8. Water quality management

HACCP use for the management of water quality was first proposed three decades ago. Ever since then, many water quality initiatives made use of HACCP principles (see, Figure 3) and steps to control waterborne infectious disease along with controlling factors that affect drinking water safety (Figure 4(a) and (b)), and acted as the basis for the approach on “Water Safety Plan” (WSP) in the fourth edition of the World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (Cotruvo, 2017; WHO, 2017).

Figure 4. (a). Processes in the drinking water distribution system that influence water quality (adapted from Rubulis et al., 2008; Tsaridou and Karabelas, 2021) Figure 4(b). Cultural influences that affect safety plans for drinking water (adapted from Omar et al., 2017)

The “Water Safety Plan” is to adapt HACCP approach into drinking water system. Many forms of hazards have been associated with water system, including biological (microbial), physical, and chemical hazards (Li et al., 2022; Mabvouna Biguioh et al., 2020). Efforts have also been made in HACCP education, certification, and training programs for building resilient food safety management in water system worldwide. The programs usually center on adapting HACCP principles to specific requirements of utility and domestic (cold/hot) water systems, especially in buildings, to avoid manmade hazards, such as plumbing and defecating hazards, from harming individuals (Li et al., 2022; Tsitsifli & Tsoukalas, 2021). Hazards that must be addressed are lead, disinfection byproducts, scalding, as well as many clinically significant pathogens, including Naegleria, Legionella, Elizabethkingia, Acinetobacter, nontuberculous mycobacteria, Pseudomonas, E. coli, Coliform, etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). The steps employed in HACCP and food safety management as described for other foods in previous sections should be considered in the management of drinking-water safety and quality. Figure 5 provides a guide on how ti implement water safety plan (WSP).

Figure 5. Steps to guide on water safety plan (WSP) (adapted from Omar et al., 2017)

9. Novel/Modern technology for HACCP and food safety management

Researchers and food innovators worldwide are pioneering novel technologies for HACCP and food safety management. Many exciting modern inventions and innovations to improving food safety are already imminent now and in the future. In this section, some modern and emerging technologies for improving HACCP and food safety management are described (He et al., 2021; Jadhav et al., 2021). These were considered novel as they help simplify at least one aspect of HACCP and food safety management. From early idea, to testing, development, and more research, to mainstreaming, some of these developments mean big changes in global food industries.

9.1. Light technologies in food safety management

There are modern technological developments that apply light to ensure food safety. Ultraviolet (UV) processes have been conventionally used and are still being tested in food industries and in food supply chain (Den Uijl et al., 2022; He et al., 2021). Some liquids and food contact surfaces are now decontaminated using UV lights, an efficient and cost-effective way that ensures food safety and cleanliness. Light technologies have also found recent applications in fresh fruit and vegetables (Kebbi et al., 2020). The produce is usually uncooked, so no “kill step”—a term used to describe the point in food production when pathogenic microorganisms are eliminated from the food products. The goals of using light technologies as a “kill step”, whether by treatment treating plasma technology, pulsed light, irradiation, or ultraviolet light, are to safely reduce pathogenic microorganisms while retaining the quality attributes of the produce, including its freshness and nutrients (Den Uijl et al., 2022; Jadhav et al., 2021; Kebbi et al., 2020). If, in due course, the kill step is applied to bagged salads, number of recalls may drastically drop, consequently reducing food waste and the incidence of food-borne illness, while improving food safety.

9.2. Artificial intelligence (AI) in food production

From the field, artificial intelligence (AI) is playing important roles in making the imprecise science of farming become more reliable, efficient, and predictive. Weather events and insects can have predictable improvement or destructive influence on growing season, but artificial intelligence can predict yields quite accurately, which when applied can help agriculturalists inform businesses and people further down the supply chain (Mavani et al., 2022). Machine-learning tools use ultra-scale images and computer vision in combination with GPS to classify crops, such as lettuce, gathering information on their size, safety, quality, and quantity of the heads, allowing for more harvest time efficiency. Food-borne diseases constitute major problem worldwide, affecting millions each year. Ever since 1960s, over 25% of Salmonella outbreaks are caused by the Typhimurium variant. A group of researchers trained a machine-learning algorithm on over 1,300 genomes of Typhimurium with identified origins (Wheeler et al., 2018). The algorithm successfully predicted some animal sources, mostly swine and poultry, that have the genome of Typhimurium, consequently tracing food-borne diseases back to their source (Wheeler et al., 2018). AI has been in use to reduce food wastes due to poor safety measures. A group of researchers in Singapore developed AI-driven nose that detects meat freshness, by reacting to the gaseous compounds produced when meat spoilage sets in (Guo et al., 2020; Nanyang Technological University, 2020). The AI-driven nose can help reduce meat wastes and improve safe consumption, as foods can be confirmed if it is safe for consumption irrespective of the expiry dates or best before date.

9.3. Novel freezing

The processors of frozen food are constantly looking for novel ways to maintain food safety while reducing costs. Isochoric freezing, a novel freezing technique, can improve food quality and safety, while reducing energy cost (Bilbao-Sainz et al., 2021). Isochoric freezing works by storing food in a metal or hard plastic container full of liquid, such as water. Freezing foods often expose them to air, but isochoric freezing employs a mechanism that preserves foods without undergoing through solid ice, by preventing the formation of ice crystals on the foods, consequently making sure that foods taste better and last longer (Bilbao-Sainz et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021). This mechanism saves energy as the processed foods do not need to be frozen entirely, contrary to traditional methods of freezing which consume more power and emit more carbon. Isochoric freezing improves food safety management by reducing the cost of freezing foods, along with reducing carbon emissions (Kumari et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2021). Bilbao-Sainz et al. (2021) employed isochoric freezing in the preservation of grape tomato, and reported promising results. In another study, Zhao et al. (2021) tested isochoric freezing effectiveness in preserving the quality of cut tomato, and also reported promising results. A year after, Kumari et al. (2022) concluded that isochoric freezing is an emerging innovative technology that retains food quality and improves its safety. More novel methods of freezing are emerging. Novel blanching method have also been developed. Unlike blanching at high temperatures, frozen food blanching has been employed to stabilize raw materials such as vegetables prior to freezing; it works by halting the cooking procedure by dipping hot foods into cold water first (Akomea-Frempong et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). Studies have attempted to establish temperature-time regimen for blanching to reduce pathogens in raw produce, therefore increasing consumers food safety (EFSA Panel on Biological Akomea-Frempong et al., 2021; Koutsoumanis et al., 2020). For example, the innovation reduces Listeria-associated risks in freezers (EFSA Panel on Biological Koutsoumanis et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021).

9.4. Automation improves monitoring

Process automation may usually take some time to put in place, but the effort is an important method industry can employ to increase food safety, reduce food wastes, and trace food-borne diseases (Eldridge et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2022). Certain food safety software employed in food monitoring includes the integrations of Bluetooth with many smartphone apps, meaning that these tools can be practically accessible to anyone who owns a smartphone, thus reducing difficulties and the need for one person to do all the checks (Ma et al., 2022; Ventola, 2014; Xiao et al., 2022). Real-time automatic reporting can also prevent mistakes that may cost food businesses some fortune or become liabilities (Ma et al., 2022). Digital intelligence can track trends, and authenticate compliance to proper procedures, making it harder to deliberately make several accidental errors or alter data (Awuchi & Dendegh, 2022). Sensors in freezers and refrigerators can automatically alert quality and safety managers whenever temperatures and time surpass safe limits, so corrective actions (HACCP principle) can be taken to solve the problem immediately instead of waiting for manual check. Manual checks are not as effective as automated checks, and automated monitoring is gradually becoming the culture in commercial food production.

9.5. Easy contaminants detection

Novel technologies have been developed to easily detect food contaminants in real-time, with more still under development. Novel systems for metal detection help small and medium scale food manufacturers/co-packers boost productivity and conform with regulations, with compact designs adaptable with time (Zappa, 2019; HitabatuHitabatuma et al., 2022). These systems are designed to employ advanced algorithm for digital inspection of food products for traces of contaminants (e.g., metals), make reading more accurate, reduce noise/vibration, stabilize core sensors, and reduce false rejection of products (Zappa, 2019; HitabatuHitabatuma et al., 2022). X-ray technology in food applications has significantly developed recently, with more development expected. Physical contaminants, such as bones, pits, etc., are a hurdle to overcome by food producers. Chicken is among the most common sources of proteins consumed worldwide. X-ray technology development for better detection of cartilage and bones in chickens can save resources and time, and improve food safety and consumer protection (Feng et al., 2021; Kotwaliwale et al., 2014). The detection of contaminants in real-time is ripe for future exploration. Recent studies that have attempted to improve HACCP and food safety management are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Recent studies demonstrating food safety measures to contain microbial pathogens for sustainable food safety system

Title of the study	Study objectives	Results and conclusion	Reference
“Probiotic Characteristics and Antimicrobial Potential of a Native Bacillus subtilis Strain Fa17.2 Rescued from Wild Bromelia sp. Flowers”	To identy the Bacillus subtilis strain annotated Fa17.2 from the inflorescences of Bromelia flower. The probiotic properties and antimicrobial potentials against four foodborne pathogens were assessed.	The molecular weight of partly purified precipitated bacteriocin-like substances was 14 kDa in 20% Tricine-SDS-PAGE. The CE obtained from Fa17.2 inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella dysenteriae, and Kosaconia cowanii, which implies its potentials as antimicrobial.	Tenea et al. (2022)
“The Bactericidal Effect of a Combination of Food-Grade Compounds and their Application as Alternative Antibacterial Agents for Food Contact Surfaces”	To develop a non-toxic and “green” food-grade alternative to chemical sanitizers	A combination of these food-grade antibacterials is useful for inhibiting b0acteria on food contact surfaces, while using lower concentrations of its components than are individually effective.	Park et al. (2020)
“Lactiplantibacillus plantarum subsp. plantarum and Fructooligosaccharides Combination Inhibits the Growth, Adhesion, Invasion, and Virulence of Listeria monocytogenes”	This study aimed to investigate the single and combined effects of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and fructooligosaccharides on the growth, invasion, adhesion, and virulence of gene expressions of Listeria monocytogenes	L. plantarum in combination with 2% and 4% (w/v) fructooligosaccharides significantly inhibited the growth of L. Monocytogenes at 10 °C and 25 °C incubation temperature. Overall, the L. plantarum and fructooligosaccharides combination may be effective against L. monocytogenes.	Dong et al. (2022)
“Antimicrobial and Antiviral (SARS-CoV-2) Potential of Cannabinoids and Cannabis sativa: A Comprehensive Review”	This paper comprehensively reviews the antimicrobial and antiviral properties of C. sativa for potential novel antibiotic drug and/or natural antimicrobial agents for agricultural/industrial use	Cannabis and its compounds have good potentials as drug candidates for novel antibiotics	Mahmud et al. (2021)
“Durability Assessment of a Plasma-Polymerized Coating with Anti-Biofilm Activity against L. monocytogenes Subjected to Repeated Sanitization”	The aim of this study was to assess the durability of anti-biofilm capacity of plasma-polymerized coating comprising of a functional coating of acrylic acid and a base coating of (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane	The study confirms the effectiveness of the coating for inhibiting multi-strain Listeria monocytogenes biofilm formation using a three-strain cocktail.	Muro-Fraguas et al. (2021)
“Polymers and Biopolymers with Antiviral Activity: Potential Applications for Improving Food Safety”	This review compiles existing studies on polymers and biopolymers with antiviral activity for improved food safety.	Many polymers and biopolymers have promising antiviral activity against many viruses	Randazzo et al. (2018)
“Antiviral Biodegradable Food Packaging and Edible Coating Materials in the COVID-19 Era: A Mini-Review”	This review aims to cover the perspectives on antiviral food packaging materials.	The antiviral activities of many nanomaterials, biopolymers, extracts, natural oils, polyphenolic compounds, etc., are identified for application in food safety management	Priyadarshi et al. (2022)
“Synthesis and enhanced Antibacterial using Plant extracts with Silver nanoparticles: Therapeutic Application”	This study evaluated the antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles and plant extracts.	The study concluded that the formulations of AgNPs and plant extracts improved the antimicrobial activities of the plant extracts for food and pharmaceutical applications	Kavitha et al. (2021)
“Antiprotozoal activity of medicinal plants used by Iquitos-Nauta road communities in Loreto (Peru)”	To validate and assess the medicinal plant use by people of Loreto region	The ethanolic extract from Grias neuberthii bark and Costus curvibracteatus leaves showed strong in vitro activity against P. falciparum and L. donovani, and moderate activity against T. brucei	P. Vásquez-Ocmín et al. (2018)
“Metabolomic approach of the antiprotozoal activity of medicinal Piper species used in Peruvian Amazon”	To validate use of Piper species in Alto Amazonas Province (Peru) and annotate their bioactive compounds	After metabolomic analyses and annotation of bioactive compounds on Leishmania, P. Pseudoarboreum and P. strigosum were concluded to be potential sources of leishmanicidal compounds.	P. G. Vásquez-Ocmín et al. (2021)
“Phytochemical Screening and Antiprotozoal Effects of the Methanolic Berberis vulgaris and Acetonic Rhus coriaria Extracts”	The study assessed the in vitro and in vivo inhibitory efficacy of methanolic extract of B. vulgaris and acetone extract of R. coriaria on six piroplasm parasites	The acetone extract of R. coriaria and methanolic extract of B. vulgaris inhibited the multiplication of Babesia bovis, B. bigemina, B. caballi, B. divergens, and Theileria equi	Batiha et al. (2020)
“Hygienic Practices and Structural Conditions of the Food Processing Premises Were the Main Drivers of Microbiological Quality of Edible Ice Products in Binh Phuoc Province, Vietnam 2019”	The study assessed the food safety, quality of edible ice product, and associated factors at manufacturing premises	This study presented measures to ensure food safety at ice producing premises	Tuyet Hanh and Hanh (2020)
“Historical Evolution of Cattle Management and Herd Health of Dairy Farms in OECD Countries”	To described evolution of dairy farms’ herd health and cattle management	Adequate safety and HACCP measures will help improve herd health and cattle management	Medeiros et al. (2022)
“A Risk and Hazard Analysis Model for the Production Process of a New Meat Product Blended With Germinated Green Buckwheat and Food Safety Awareness”	To carry out risk and hazard analysis and develop model for producing novel meat product with germinated green buckwheat	Model for producing novel meat product with germinated green buckwheat was recommended	Atambayeva et al. (2022a)
“History, development, and current status of food safety systems worldwide”	To evaluate the history, development, and current status of food safety systems worldwide	The history, development, and current status of food safety systems worldwide can be improved with adequate food safety measures	Weinroth et al. (2018)

10. Current burden and future prospects of food safety management

Safe supplies of food support a nations’ economies, tourism, trade, reinforce sustainable development, and improve food and nutrition security. Changes in consumers habit and urban growth have led to an increase in the number of individuals purchasing and consuming foods made in public places. This phenomenon is projected to increase in the future. Globalization and urbanization have triggered growing demand for variety of foods by consumers, leading to an increased longer and complex global food chain (WHO, 2022). This puts burden on food safety management and demands for stricter but smarter HACCP plans. Climate change is expected to have huge impact on food supplies and safety by 2050, with developing and underdeveloped nations expected to be the worst affected, including small island developing states. These challenges place more responsibilities on food producers/handlers, who need to ensure not just uninterrupted food supplies, but also food safety and quality. Local events can rapidly grow into international and intercontinental emergencies because of the range and speed of product distribution. The global system of food supply chain is so interconnected that disruption in one region will consequently affect other regions. A typical recent example is the Russian-Ukraine war that has disrupted the supply chain for energy and grains such as wheat., affecting both developed and developing countries. Such disruptions affect food safety and should be avoided in the future. National and international governments have to make prioritize food safety for public health, as it plays an important role in developing regulatory frameworks and policies, as well as in implementing and establishing effective systems for food safety management. Food consumers and handlers have to understand how to foods can be safely handled at home, factories, restaurants, or local market.

The burden of foodborne diseases to national economies and public health is usually underestimated because of underreporting and difficulty in establishing causal connections between the contamination of foods and its associated illness/death. The WHO 2015 report on the global burden estimates of foodborne diseases was the first estimates of disease burden resulting from 31 foodborne agents (toxins, chemicals, viruses, bacteria, parasites) at sub-regional and global level, concluding that at least 600 million foodborne illness cases and420000death cases can occur each year (WHO, 2022). The foodborne diseases’ burden disproportionately falls on vulnerable groups, especially children below 5, with highest burden occurring in low- and middle-income nations. The World Bank 2019 report on economic burdens of foodborne diseases showed that the loss of total productivity associated with foodborne diseases in low- and middle-income nations was US$ 95.2 billion every year, with the annual costs of foodborne illness treatment being US$ 15 billion (WHO, 2022).

In the industrialized countries, food production is facing an interesting paradox, with intense flow of several foods and beverages, every year, and the simultaneous course for food safety concern (Pellerito et al., 2019). In the event of this food sharing, comes the risks of exposure to unsafe food and foodborne diseases. Social supermarkets, food banks, etc., need to analyze, evaluate, and adopt defined HACCP plans and specific regulations to ensure safety. Even degraded and recovered products may also be unsafe. Adequate measures should be put in place and also explored further for food safety management.

11. Conclusion

HACCP is a food safety or food hygiene approach that employs systematic preventive methods to protect foods and consumers from chemical, physical, and biological hazards/contaminants, and makes use of scientific methods for preparation, handling, and storage of foods to prevent food-borne diseases/illness, and maintain food quality. At least 600 million foodborne illness cases and420000death cases can occur each year. Many factors of food contamination such as chemical, biological, and physical contaminants can be well managed/controlled with proper HACCP application and other food safety measures. This provides insights into the traditional and modern/novel approach to improving HACCP, food safety management, and quality in food and agricultural systems. Novel/modern technologies for HACCP and food safety management have been developed, including light technologies, novel freezing, AI, automation, etc., for easy detection/control of contaminants.

Ethical approval and consent to participate

The study does not involve human or animal

Consent for publication

The author consents to the publication

Data availability

Additional data will be made available on request

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda for providing the facilities used in undertaking this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors have no funding to report.