Practices of ethnoveterinary medicine and ethnobotanical knowledge of plants used to treat livestock diseases, Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia

Abstract

Traditional medical practices have been employed for millennia to keep animal health and the knowledge is passed down orally from generation to generation. It is an integral part of the culture of rural tribal peoples living in Ethiopia. Therefore, to document this indigenous ethnoveterinary practice in the Wolaita Zone of south Ethiopia, a field survey was carried out. Ninety different healers were specifically chosen and questioned based on their proficiency in treating animals with conventional medicine. The ethnobotanical data were examined and compiled using descriptive statistics. It was found that there are 28 different plant families represented by 54 plants that provide therapeutic benefits against a total of 39 livestock illnesses. The majority of plant parts used (49%) in the study sites were leaves and herbs (9). Prepared remedies were administered through nasal, oral, topical/dermal, and ocular routes. Blackleg, bloat, and endoparasites had the highest ICF values, and Withania somnifera was the most potent remedy for treating blackleg. Zingiber officinale had the highest level value (FL = 94%) for treating bloat. Croton macrostachyus was reported to be a well-known plant in the sizable community and even used at the family level for different purposes in addition to their medical value. Stephania abyssinica had the highest mean cultural importance, followed by Pentas shemperina L. The main hazards to medicinal plants in the study district were expansion of agriculture, drought, and construction. Therefore, therapeutic plant conservation is a responsibility of local communities and other responsible organizations.

Keywords:

• animal diseases
• ethno-veterinary
• Ethiopia
• traditional medicine
• Wolaita

1. Introduction

Livestock production is a vital portion of developing nations’ rural economies for its role in ensuring food security, reducing poverty, and many other cultural activities (Chakale et al., 2021; Varijakshapanicker et al., 2019). Animals, because of their ability to convert poor forage into energy-dense muscle and milk, they are used as draft power as well as an important sources of food, nutrition, income, and nitrogen-rich manure for replenishing soil fertility (Banda & Tanganyika, 2021; Mottet et al., 2018; Wendimu & Tekalign, 2023). They also play many other societal roles. However, they are frequently susceptible to a number of diseases in rural areas (Chakale et al., 2021). According to Maikhuri (1992) and Dovie et al. (2006), this factor alters the way cattle are raised and occasionally puts animal diversity at risk at the local, governmental, and herd levels.

Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) is the application of botanical knowledge, conventional wisdom, experience, techniques, and technologies to maintain animal health. For public veterinary services are only available in large cities (Tabuti et al., 2003), farmers and livestock herders in remote locations rely primarily on EVM as a viable replacement for western veterinary procedures. According to McGaw and Eloff (2008), EVM studies are important since plants contain a diversity of phytochemicals. Wendimu et al. (2021), claimed that these plants can be the leading candidates for the creation of medications and other active substances that are useful for controlling human and livestock health ailments.

Ethnoveterinary techniques of healing are still practiced even in places with access to contemporary veterinarian services which were initially introduced many years ago (Elizabeth et al., 2014). Ethiopia, as a developing country, relies heavily on traditional medicine to address problems with livestock health (Wendimu et al., 2021). However, there have been surprisingly few initiatives to investigate, record, analyze, and develop medicinal plants for their wider usage in the country, despite the considerable role they have played in treating livestock illnesses in both pastoralist and settlement parts of the country (Lynam et al., 2007). Given that the country is listed in two biodiversity hotspots and has a fast growing population, the ongoing loss of biodiversity emphasizes the need to record plant resources, particularly native plants that can be of medical importance..

Surveying and documenting the comprehension of traditional veterinary medicine in the research area were done in different ways. Key informants were selected from a pool of information sources that comprised regional agricultural extensionists, para-veterinarians, and veterinarians that provide extension services to livestock farmers. Local livestock traders, dealers, and individual livestock farmers shared their expertise in ethnoveterinary medicine. A unique subset of local ethnopractitioners, which includes general traditional healers/herbalists, specialized medicine men, Hillaa, or ritualists (key informants) were all participated. A non-experimental validation method of the documented plants and plant products utilized in the traditional animal healthcare system among the Kebeles was obtained and used in conjunction with a methodical gathering of secondary data on the traditional animal healthcare system of the Wolaita people. After that, a thorough literature search was conducted using the internet, livestock research facilities, herbarium libraries, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and labs to find information on the classification of the plant specimens that had been collected and their application in ethnobotany. For the purpose of non-experimental validation, ethnoveterinary medicine requires a set of triangulation techniques, which all of these procedures contain.

According to a report by the Conventional Veterinary Services and Drug Resistance (Wall et al., 2016), there has been a recent rise in the number of cattle diseases that have an impact on output. Rural livestock breeders’ inability to obtain veterinary care and the rising expense of veterinary services have made the issue worse. Despite efforts (Beinart & Brown, 2013; Birhanu & Abera, 2015; McGaw et al., 2020), there is a lack of documentation and scientific data addressing the knowledge and practices of ethnoveterinary medicine across many ethnic groups worldwide. The majority of native diagnostic and ethnobotanical techniques used to care for cattle have been passed down from generation to generation, primarily through apprenticeship and word-of-mouth (Bredemus, 2021; Eisner, 2020). Elders in the community and the few young people who are interested in learning how to utilize it presently possess such indigenous knowledge (Bruchac, 2014). EVM commonly varies with place and culture because there are disparities in culture, disease epidemiology, and biodiversity. Therefore, if not recorded, both plant materials and the related traditional knowledge, skills, and experiences accumulated over generations in developing countries may go extinct due to migration, urbanization, environmental degradation, deforestation, acculturation, and technological advancement (Abebe, 1986; Abebe & Ishtiaq, 2022; Asfaw, 2001; Chaachouay et al., 2022; Crane et al., 2017; Giday et al., 2009; Hecht et al., 2015; Wendimu et al., 2021). The importance of this corpus of information is best expressed by the African saying “When an erudite old man dies, the whole library disappears” (Lalonde, 1993). This study looked at native diagnostic techniques and ethnobotanical procedures in Kindo Koysha and Kido Diday Districts to cure livestock infections and other husbandry indications in Wolaita Zone South Ethiopia.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Description of the study area

In the kebeles of Zero, Goc’he, Cherache, Mogisa, and Patata in the Kindo Didaye District side and Fajena Mata, Manara, Mashinga, and Mundena in the Kindo Koysha District side of Wolaita, Ethiopia, an ethnobotanical field study was carried out from December 2022 to March 2023. These two districts were selected based on their large amount of plant population in the greater Omo-Gibe basin of the country. The two districts were located on the map in between 6°41'30''N—6°52'30''N and 37°14'0''E—37°30'0''E (Kindo Didaye) and 6°48'30''N—7°5'0''N and 37°26'0''E—37°38'0''E (Kindo Koysha) (Figure 1). Wolaita is the name of one of Ethiopia’s zonal administrations. The Wolaita people, whose ancestral home is in the zone, gave it their name. Wolaita is bordered by Gamo Gofa on the south, the Omo River on the west, which separates it from Dawro, Kembata Tembaro on the northwest, Hadiya on the north, the Oromia Region on the northeast, the Bilate River on the east, which separates it from Sidama Region, and Lake Abaya on the south-east, which separates it from Oromia Region. Sodo serves as the administrative hub of Wolaita. Wolaita Zone is located in one of Ethiopia’s southern regional states. With a surface area of 4383.7 km², the zone has a population above 5.3 million (Central Statistical Agency, CSA, 2021). Other demographic data were described in the supplementary data sheet (Table 1).

Figure 1. The study area map, Wolaita zone, southern Nation, Nationalities, and Peoples regional state (SNNPR) of Ethiopia.

Table 1. Demographic characters of the study area

Districts	Population		Religion
	Men	Women	Orthodox	Catholicism	Traditional faiths	Protestant
Kindo Koysha District	66,546	69,866	16.73%	1.52%	1.18%	79.82%
Kindo Didaye District	47,864	49,702	19.08%	4.2%	6.07%	70.65%

In the western region of Wolaita Zone, the sites are situated along the Omo River. Degraded woods dominate the vegetation along the shoreline, which is well protected. The majority of ethnobotanical products utilized historically in human and animal healthcare systems come from these types of flora. The resulting lakes and river are brown in hue and encircled by trees. Around the river, there is a wide range of wildlife, including monkeys, baboons, and numerous species of birds. The most common soil types are clay and red loam, which are both well-drained and generally fruitful.

Pictures of the flora of the study area around Gibe III hydroelectric power dam on River Omo.

2.2. Informant selection

Ninety participants, 83% of men and 17% of women, were specifically selected to participate in the study. Participants included farmers, cattle, herders, and individuals with indigenous knowledge, and their ages ranged from 18 to 95. Based on their willingness to participate, prior knowledge of, and familiarity with the study’s subjects, participants were chosen. Based on recommendations from community members, elders, and the key informants themselves regarding their greater knowledge, fifteen key informants (11 men and 4 women) were chosen.

2.3. Sampling technique

From each of the nine kebeles selected, 10 informants (a total of 90) were selected as representative samples using a systematic random sampling method. For the determination of the sample size, a formula from Yamane (1967) was employed with a 90% confidence level;

n = $\frac{N}{1+N{(e)}^2}$ Where; n represents the sample size,

N denotes the population size

e is the level of precision.

With the assumption of a 7% level of precision, a total of 90 sample sizes were taken from a 300 total population of the selected kebeles as follows:

n = $\frac{300}{1+300{(0.09)}^2}$ $\approx 90$

2.4. Data collection

Ethnopractitioners who provide primary healthcare services to the local livestock industry were designated as key informants. Information was gathered in their native tongue, Wolaittatto, through semistructured interviews, field observations, discussions with informants, guided field walks with informants, and walk-in-the-talk. Data from individual interviews was cross-checked with responses from other informants in the same villages in order to acquire reliable information about the study region (Kongsager, 2021).

The respondents were specifically asked about the conditions that were managed by plant-based medicines, as well as the creation and issuance of prescriptions for the drugs. The participants were also questioned about the method of preparation and whether or not they used ingredients in the amalgamation of plant products in order to ascertain how frequently a specific medicine is remedially operational in terms of the right dose, the right ingredients, and consequently, the right duration of medication. Every respondent was required to complete a well-structured questionnaire with the help of the interviewer on the kind of ethnoveterinary medication employed and where it came from, the species of animals treated, the identification, preparation, storage, and administration of therapeutic goods, the care and supervision of animals, the way in which ethnopractitioners are paid for their work, how animal diseases and/or other health problems are treated, how plants and/or plant products are utilized and in what form, how plants and/or plant products are used for treatment, how ethnopractitioners are reimbursed for their services, the steps being taken to maintain the plants and/or plant products used for treatment, how knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine is shared among practitioners, challenges facing the discipline, and the interviewee’s personal opinions on the subject, the interviewer’s firsthand observations of indicators of ethnoveterinary medical practice on the interviewee’s farm, as well as what might be carried out to enhance conventional veterinary treatment in the interviewee’s community.

2.5. Collection of plant specimens, identification, and preservation

After the key respondents were personally interviewed, the listed plant specimens were gathered during several field trips. From the collected samples, each plant species was identified using semantic-based automatic structuring of leaf images for advanced plant species identification and Gabor wavelet categorization techniques in addition to The World Flora Online (http://www.worldfloraonline.org/and The Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.com accessed on 1–9 2023) prior to the completion of botanical identification in a field lab using taxonomic keys for the Ethiopian and Eritrean floras. The plants used by the informants were photographed and sampled for identification in the “national herbarium”. The first author identified the plants and his colleague Zekarias Demissie (botanist) assisted the identification.

2.6. Data analysis

Data about ethnomedicine were collected, collated, and entered into Microsoft Corporation 2010’s Excel spreadsheet program. The descriptive statistical method was used to analyze and compile the ethnobotanical data gathered from interviews and observations, such as medicinal value, preparation methods, application, disease treated, route of application, dosage of medicine, growth forms of plants, and parts of the plants. Using the t-test (SPSS software, version 20) at a 90% confidence level, traditional medicinal dynamics on the use of medicinal plants by men and women, young and old, illiterate and educated, key and general informants were compared. According to Hoffman and Gallaher (2007), the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) values were used to determine the most prevalent livestock disease categories that occurred in the districts and identify potentially useful therapeutic plant species in the corresponding disease categories. The ICF was calculated as follows: Number of use citations in each category (nur) minus the number of species used (nt), and divided by the number of citations in each category minus one. FL values were calculated as: FL (%) = Ip/Iu × 100. Where Ip represents the total number of informants who mentioned using a plant to treat a particular ailment, and Iu represents all informants who mentioned using a plant to treat any disease (Hoffman & Gallaher, 2007). To assess the level of effectiveness of specific medicinal plants against the most common ailments in the research district, a preference ranking was calculated. A key from Martin (1995) was used to compute a direct matrix ranking to compare the multiple uses of a specific plant species based on the data gathered from informants. Plants with multiple purposes for local communities are known as multipurpose plants. The usage classifications include those plants used for food, tools, construction, fencing, firewood, charcoal, and other similar things. From all identified medicinal plants, 15 plant species which were employed in more than three classifications were chosen 17, and their various applications were listed. Six randomly selected key informants were asked to assign a use value to each species (5= best, 4= very good, 3= good, 2= less used, 1= least used, and 0= not used). Each species average scores were combined, and the results were ranked. The relevance of each species to each local culture was assessed using the cultural value index (CI). It was determined by adding up each use category cited in a species’ use report (UR) for the area divided by the participants’ total number (N) for that area. Reyes-García et al. (2006) works were followed to compute the mean cultural significance index (mCI) for a chosen group of plants that are the most significant culturally.

$\mathrm{C}\mathrm{I}=\sum _{\mathrm{i}=1}^{\mathrm{i}=\mathrm{N}\mathrm{U}}\left(\frac{\mathrm{U}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{i}}{\mathrm{N}}\right)$

By adding the cultural importance index (CI) of the species in each family, the cultural significance of each family (CIf) was calculated (Wendimu & Tekalign, 2022).

3. Results

3.1. Use knowledge of medicinal plants among people

Despite the fact that male informants reported 88 (58.82%) more therapeutic plants than female respondents 22 (41.17%), the difference was statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). In comparison to the youngest group (20–39 years old), the elderly community members (40–85 years old) reported significantly (p < 0.05) more medicinal plants. Similar to this, there were reported medicinal plant differences between the community’s illiterate and educated groups that were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Compared to general informants, key informants knew a considerably (p < 0.05) a greater number of therapeutic plants (Table 2).

Table 2. Statistical test of knowledge among different groups of informants on average number of medicinal plants reported

Parameters used	Groups of informants	N	P value
Gender	Male	83	0.53
	Female	22
Age	Youngest group (20–39 years old)	37	0.000
	Senior group (40–85 years old)	68
Educational level	Illiterate	64	0.01
	Educated	41
Informant category	Key informants	90	0.003
	General informants	15
Experience in cattle production (years)	5–10	30	0.000
	11–20	40
	21–30	22
	Above 30	13
Form of cattle production	Subsistence	65	0.002
	Commercial	40
Method of animal treatment	Medicinal plants only	48	0.01
	Combination of medicinal plants and conventional medicine	57

N = Number of respondents; significance difference (p < 0.05).

3.2. Acquiring and sharing knowledge of native medicinal plants

From a total of 90 practitioners, 60 (74%) said they had heard stories about medicinal plants from members of their family, especially their father and grandparents, in a very private way. The remaining 20 (16.8%) and 11 (9.24%) picked up knowledge of medicinal plants from reading various sources, asking acquaintances for assistance, and trial-and-error, respectively.

3.3. Medicinal ethnoveterinary plants in the district

The research district contained a total of 54 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species, which are divided into 28 families (Table 3). Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae (7 species) and Vitaceae, Amaranthaceae, Cucurbitaceous, and Convolvulaceae (3 species each) grabbed the lion’s share of the reported plant families, according to data from the current study (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Frequency of the 32 plant families used in the treatment of cattle diseases.

Table 3. The diversity of medical plants used in traditional ethno-veterinary practices, their ways of preparation and utilization to relieve common livestock ailments in Kindo Koysha and Kindo Didaye districts, Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia

No	Scientific and Family Names	English and Local Names (FL)	Growth Form	Collection habits	Used Part	Ailments treated (FL %)	Remedy Preparation and dosage	Administration Route	Freq.	Used by
1.	Acalypha spp. Euphorbiaceae	Love-lies-bleeding (E), Gagabissa (W), Lalisho (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Root	Bloat (92%)	The fresh or dried root is ground and soaked with water in 1L bottle.	Oral	Twice	Bovine
2.	Acmella caulirhiza Del. Asteraceae	Acmella (E), Aydaamiya (W), Yemdir berbere (A)	Herb	Wild	Leave	Leech (68%)	Fresh leaves of the plant is squeezed and the smell is gasped until sneezing.	Nasal	Once	Bovine
					Seed	Internal parasite (68%)	The dry ground seed is mixed with milk in 0.5L bottle	Oral (drinking)	Once	Cat
					Leave	Newcastle (68%)	The fresh plant leaves were crushed and soaked with water in open dish for an hours. The sauce is then filtered and only the liquid part is collected in 1L bottle.	Oral	Twice	Poultry
3.	Artemisia spp. Asteraceae	Naatraa (W)	Herb	Cultivated	Stem & Leave	Bloating (88%)	When in pain, this plant’s fresh shoot or leave and an E. globulus leave are crushed together and given in doses of one liter for cows and oxen and half a liter for sheep and goats.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
4.	Brassica nigra (L.) K.Koch, Brassicaceae	Oats (E), Santta ayfiya (W), Senafich (A)	Herb	Cultivated/wild	Seed	Indigestion (71%), Colic (66%), Bloat (58%)	The dried seeds of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. A dose of one water glass is given per day until recovery.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
5.	Brucea antidysenterica JF. Mill. Simaroubaceae	Bitter bark tree (E), Shushale (W), Aballo (Waginos) (A)	Tree	Wild	Leave and seed	Epizootic (55%), Lymphangitis (45%)	The dried ground seed and fresh leave are mixed with water and given in doses of one liter once a day.	Let them to eat Oral(drinking)	Twice	Equine
6.	Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Loganiaceae	Buddlea (E), Kanbara (W), Anfar (Atquar) (A)	Shrub	Cultivated	Leave	Internal parasite (47%), Diarrhea (28%)	The fresh leaves of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. The preparation is then given in doses of one liter once a day in morning.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
7.	Calpurnia aurea (A it.) Benth. Fabaceae	Cape laburnum (E), Mello (W), Digita (A)	Shrub	Wild	Leave	Oestrusovis (49%), Trypanosomiasis (33%)	The fresh leaves of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. The preparation is then given in doses of 3-4 drops.	Nasal (drop), Oral (drinking)	Every day until recovery	Ovine, bovine
8.	Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae	Bell pepper (E), Qaariya (A), Kariya (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Fruit	Colic (52%)	The fresh ripen fruit of the plant is juiced using water as diluent. A dose of one water glass is given.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
9.	Coffea arabica L. Rubiaceae	Arabian coffee (E), Tukkiya (W), Buna (A)	Shrub	Cultivated/wild	Seed	Wound (68%)	The dried and roasting seeds of the plant is ground and small amount of powder is applied on the victim sites every day until recovery.	Topical application	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
						Retained placenta (37%)	To expel the placenta, cows are given 2-3 liters of crushed, boiled E. ventricosum stem and C. arabica leaf mixture, and sheep and goats are given one liter.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
10.	Conyza spp. Asteraceae	Horseweed (E), Asfa (A), Chakga (W)	Herb	Wild	Leave	Internal parasite (47%)	The fresh leaves of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. The preparation is then given in doses of one liter once a day in morning.	Oral (drinking)	Twice	Bovine
11.	Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile, Euphorbiaceae	Woodland croton (E), Anka (W), Bisana (A)	Tree	Wild	Leave	Lymphangitis (35%), Foot rot (23%)	The fresh leaves of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. The preparation is then given in doses of one water glass every day in evening for seven consecutive days until recovery.	Oral and topical	7 days	Bovine, ovine, caprine
						Blackleg (11%), Bloat (8%)	Crushed fresh leaves of the plant is mixed with water and filtered. The preparation is then given in doses of one liter once a day.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine
12.	Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae	Jimson weed (E), Macharara (W), Laflafuwaa(W), Itse Fars (A)	Herb	Wild	Leave	Systemic illness (42%)	The fresh leaves of the plant is crushed and left in water for maceration. One can per day for two days	Oral	Twice	Equine
						Skin disease (45%)	The dried leave is ground and mixed with water to be applied on the skin	Topical application	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
13.	Echinops spp. Asteraceae	Glandular globe-thistle (E), Boorisaa (W), Kebericho (A)	Herb	Wild	Root	Diarrhea (64%)	The fresh roots of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. The preparation is then given in doses of one water glass every day until recovery.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
						Pasteurellosis (14%)	The fresh roots of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. The preparation is then given in doses of 1-3 drops	Nasal	Once	Bovine
14.	Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman, Musaceae	Ethiopian banana (E), Utaa (W), Enset (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Whole plant	Eye infection (78%)	The fresh leave or the whole plant part is chopped or ground to thin slices. The preparation is then given to eat every day until recovery.	Ophthalmic	Once/Twice	Bovine, ovine, caprine
					Leave	Retained placenta (55%)	For the purpose of eject the placenta, the fresh leave of this plant is given to animals to eat directly.	Oral	Once	Bovine, ovine
					Stem		Or, the stem of this plant and a leaf of C. arabica are crushed, boiled, and given in doses of 2-3 liters to sheep and goats in one liter.	Oral	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
15.	Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Myrtaceae	Tasmanian blue gum (E), Paranjjaa zaafiya (W), Nech baherzaf (A)	Tree	Wild	Leave	Febrile illness (66%)	The fresh leaves of the plant is crushed and boiled in hot water. Animals are fumigated with the resulting steam vapor per day until recovery.	Fumigation	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
16.	Euphorbia tirucalli L. Euphorbiaceae	Indian tree spurge (E), Maaxxuwa (W), Kinchib (A)	Herb	Wild	Stem	Strangle burning (50%)	The fresh stem of the plant is crushed and boiled in hot water. Animals are fumigated with the resulting steam vapor per day until recovery.	Fumigation	Once	Equine
17.	Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.Gmel. Euphorbiaceae	Candelabra Spurge (E), Akkirssaa (W), Qulqual (A)	Herb	Wild	Latex	Rabies 44%)	The fresh latex of Euphorbia abyssinica is ground and applied on the victim area or, given orally.	Oral	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
18.	Girardinia sp. Urticaceae	Nettle (E), Kona (W)	Herb	Wild	Leave, stem, root	Rabies (36%)	The fresh leave, stem, or root of the plant is ground and mixed with water. The preparation is given immediately after bitten by rabid animal.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine
					Root	Internal parasite (14%)	The fresh roots of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. The preparation is then given in doses of one water glass every day until recovery.	Oral (drinking)	Twice	Ovine and caprine
19.	Helinus mystacinus (A it.) E. Mey. ex Steud. Rhamnaceae	Helinus (E), Gofe Gofa (W), Yegib mirkuz (A)	Shrub	Wild	Root	Blackleg (25%)	The fresh roots of the plant is crushed and directly given to eat every day until recovery. Animal are not forced to eat but as per their eating capacity.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
20.	Hordeum vulgare L. Poaceae	Barley (E), Banggaa (W), Gebis (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Seed	Bone break (98%)	Animals are given this plant’s boiling or uncooked seed (2–5 kilograms per day) until they recuperate.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
21.	Juniperus procera Hochst. Ex Endl. Cupressaceae	African juniper (E), Abeshaa xidaa (W), Tsid (A)	Tree	Wild	Leave	Ectoparasites infestation (67%)	Soaking the fresh leaves of the plant in water. Thereafter, washing the victim site with one water glass of solution per day until parasite load lessens.	Topical	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
						Bloating (55%)	When in pain, a combination of crushed J. procera leaf and A. sativum bulb is administered. For sheep and goats, one liter of the mixture is administered; for cows and oxen, two liters.	Oral	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
22.	Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T, Acanthaceae	Justicia (E), Olomuwa (W), Sensel, Simiza, Sansal and Dumoga (A)	Shrub	Wild	Leave	Rabies (17%)	Crushing the leaves of the plant and adding in to a hot water. Afterwards, one glass of preparation is given per day for three consecutive days.	Oral	By weekly	Bovine, ovine, caprine
						Circling disease (18%)	The crushed leaves are mixed with cold water, filtered after 30-40 minutes and administrated orally.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Ovine and caprine
23.	Kalanchoe spp, Crassulaceae	Mul’uwa	Herb	Wild	Root	Abscess (38%)	The fresh root cover is collected from plant and applied on the swellings.	Topical	Twice
					Leave	Erectile dysfunction ED (33%), Blackleg (42%)	The fresh leave of the plant is crushed and mixed with hot water. The cold preparation is then administrated orally.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine
24.	Lagenaria siceraria (molina) standl. Cucurbitaceae	Bottle gourd (E), Gosiya (W), Kil (A)	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Rabies (12%)	The fruit of this plant and the leaves of P. dodecandra are crushed together, mixed with salt and water, and a half-liter of the concoction is given to livestock every day for a week.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
25.	Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae	Garden cress (E), Sibbikka (W), Fetto (A)	Herb	Wild/cultivated	Seed	Bloat (23%), Colic (13%), Endoparasites infestation (22%)	By grinding the dried seeds of the plant, the powder is mixed with water, it is good if the water is hot but ok with cold also. One water glass of the preparation is given every day for a week.	Oral	7 days	Bovine, ovine, caprine, bovine
26.	Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae	Linseed (E), Talbbaa (W), Telba (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Seed	Constipation (39%), Retained placenta (28%)	The dried seeds of the plant is ground and cooked with hot water for 5-7 minutes. One glass of the prepared slimy product is administrated orally till recovery.	Oral	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
27.	Manihot esculenta Crantz. Euphorbiaceae	Cassava (E), Mitta boyyiya (W), Kassba (A)	Shrub	Cultivated	Leave	Cough (37%)	The fresh leaves of Manihot esculenta is squeezed with water and the juice is given orally specifically for chicken.	Oral	Twice	Chicken
28.	Maesa lanceolata Forssk Myrsinaceae	Gegechuwa (W), Kilabo (A)	Shrub	Wild	Leave	Bloat (74%)	Crushed leaves mixed with water. One glass of the prepared slimy product is administrated orally till recovery.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
29.	Milletia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Fabaceae	Zagiya (W), Birbira (A)	Tree	Wild	Root	Trypanosomiasis (20%)	Crushed root mixed with water. One glass of the prepared slimy product is administrated orally till recovery.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
30.	Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae	Tobacco (E), Tanbuwa (W), Tibahu (A)	Herb (32%)	Cultivated	Leave	Leech infestation (32%), Abdominal pain (22%), Colic (41%), Bloat (34%)	Crushing and adding water crushing and adding water. One glass or can per day until parasite detaches one glass or can for one day	Nasal and oral	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
						Trypanosomiasis (12%), Leech (35%)	Crushed leaves mixed with water and filtered. One glass of the prepared liquid product is administrated orally till recovery. Or, the plant leaf is roasted and the smoke is prescribed nasally.	Oral (drinking) Nasal	Recovery	Bovine
						Coughing (11%)	For three days, the leaf of this plant is crushed and mixed with water, and one water glass is given to each cow, ox, donkey, and horse, and half a water glass to each sheep and goat.	Oral	Twice	Bovine, ovine, caprine
					Leave & Seed	Loss of milk quality (47%)	The leave and seeds of the plant is mixed with the water and given to dairy cattle. Dairy cattle feed on the prepped product always the time while milking.	Oral	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
31.	Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae	Black cumin (E), Karetta sawuwa/shuquwaa (W), Tikur azmud (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Seed	Colic (55%)	The seed of the plant is air dried and ground. Thereafter, the powder is mixed with water. One glass of the prepared product is given orally until symptom ceases.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
32.	Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. Ex Benth. Lamiaceae	Ocimum (E), Gulluwa (W), Damakessie (A)	Shrub	Wild/cultivated	Leave	Febrile illness (14%)	The fresh leave of the plant is crushed and boiled with hot water. One glass of the preparation is given until recovery.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
33.	Pentas shemperina Hiern, Rubiaceae	Pentas (E), Dambburssaa (W), Maraxalliya (W), Yejib mirkuz (A)	Herb	Wild	Leave, root, stem	Blackleg (23%), Internal parasite (33%) Constipation (74%)	Crushed leaves and stem mixed with water and filtered. One glass of the prepared slimy product is administrated orally till recovery.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
					Leave	Bone fractures (68%)	The fresh leave of the plant is crushed and squeezed. The liquid is then boiled with hot water. Then, the cold thick liquid is filtrated and taken orally once or twice a day based on the severity of the aliment.
34.	Phytolacca dodecandra L’H´er. Phytolaccaceae	Endod (E), Hancciciaya (W)	Shrub		Root	Rabies (58%), Leech infestation (39%)	The fresh plant root is crushed and mixed with cold water. The preparation is then given orally or nasally in dosage of one glass per day until healing.	Oral and nasal	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
35.	Prunus africana (Hook. f) Kalkm Rosaceae	African cherry (E), Onta (W)	Tree	Wild	Leave	Blackleg (74%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed and mixed with cold water. The preparation is then filtered and 1-3 drop of the preparation is given nasally.	Nasal (drop)	Recovery	Bovine
36.	Ranculucus multifidusfors.sk Ranculucaceae	Buttercup (E), Selo (W)	Herb	Wild	Leave	Trypanosomiasis (15%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed and mixed with water. Then the prepared solution is given orally. The prescription dosage exceeds 3 to 4 coffee cups per a day till the animal is recovered.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
37.	Rhamnus prinoides L’H´er. Rhamnaceae	Glossy-leaf (E), Geeshuwa (W), Gesho (A)	Shrub	Wild/cultivated	Leave	Rabies (14%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed and mixed with water. One glass of the prepared solution is given orally once a day until the animal feed recovered.	Oral	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
38.	Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae	Castor oil plant (E), Qobuwa (W), Gulo (A)	Herb	Wild/cultivated	Leave	Foot and mouth disease (43%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed and mixed with water. A one cup of prepared solution is given orally per a day until the animal is recovered.	Oral	Once	Bovine
39.	Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae	Fringed rue (E), Xalotiya (W), Tenadam (A)	Shrub	Cultivated	Leave	Febrile illness (33%), Leech infestation (24%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed and mixed with water. A one cup of prepared solution is given orally per a day until the animal is recovered.	Oral and nasal	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
40	Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill. Simarubaceae	Chawla (Yedega Abalo)	Shrub	Wild	Seed	Colic (21%)	The dry ground seed is mixed with water. Thereafter, one cup of the prepared sauce is given orally early in morning per day till recovery.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
41.	Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae,	Nepal Dock (E), Hotorsa (W), Yewsha Tult (A)	Herb	Wild	Leave & root	Coughing (68%)	The fresh plant leave or root of the plant is crushed and mixed with water. Then, the juice mixture is given orally during coughing seasons in one cup of water glass.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine
42.	Rumex nervosus Vahl, Polygonaceae	Curly dock (E), Anchechiya (W), Embuachew (A)	Herb	Wild	Stem	Constipation (74%)	The fresh fiber from the crushed stem of the plant is mixed with water and given orally twice in a week. The amount is varied per age of the livestock being treated but most of the time half a liter of water bottle is the best dosage.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine
					Seed	Swelling (61%)	Crushed stem mixed with water and filtered then, the prepared liquid is applied on the victim area.	Topical application to the wound after opening the swelling	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
					Leave	External parasites (13%)	The dried or fresh plant leave is crushed and the powder or the sauce is applied on the victim site. Has no dosage specificity but the amount and frequency of application depends on the area of infested. High infestation has high application rate and frequencies and vice versa.	Topical application	Twice	Bovine
43.	Sida schimperian a Hochst. ex A. Rich. Malvaceae	Kinddiichchuwa (W), Garida (A)	Herb/Shrub	Wild	Leave	Blackleg (67%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed and mixed with water. Thereafter, the juice prepared is prescribed with nose in two up to five drops a day till recovered.	Nasal (drop)	Once	Bovine
44.	Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C.Jeffrey, Asteraceae	Shecoco gomen (w)	Herb	Wild	Leave	Internal parasite (66%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed and mixed with hot water for 5 minutes. Then, after filtering the produce is given orally. The dosage is 1 liter per a day till removal of the parasite with excrements.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine
45.	Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae	Buluwa (W), Enboy (A)	Shrub	Wild	Seed	Leech (47%)	Grinded seed mixed with water and filtered	Nasal (drop)	Twice	Bovine, caprine
46.	Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Walp. Menispermaceae	Kalala Vine (E)	Herb	Wild	Root	Mastitis (63%), Blackleg (44%), Tryps (14%)	The dried root of the plant is grinded and mixed with water. Then, the mixture is left for a few minutes in hot stove. Then, after cooling the juice is administrated nasally by three to five drops.	Oral (drinking) or Nasal (drop)	Recovery	Bovine
47.	Tragisa sp. Euphorbiaceae	Tinttilashuwa (W)	Herb	Wild	Root Leave	Blackleg (14%), Anthrax (18%), Internal parasite (34%)	The ground dried plant root or fresh plant leave is mixed with water and the prepared product is then given orally one liter per a day till recovered.	Oral (drinking)	Recovery	Bovine
48.	Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae	Fenugreek (E), Abishii (A), Abishiiya (W)	Herb	Cultivated/wild	Seed	Endoparasites infestation (77%)	The dried plant seed is ground the powder is soaked in water. One glass of the prepared product is prescribed orally per day until body condition improved.	Oral	Twice	Bovine, ovine, caprine
49.	Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) Schübl. Poaceae	Emmer (E), Banggaa (W), Sinde (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Seed	Bone fractures (78%), Weight gain (36%)	The dried seeds of Triticum dicoccon are directly given to eat.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine
50.	Triumfetta sp. Tiliaceae	Chyshie (W)	Shrub	Wild	Leave	Trypanosomiasis (12%)	The fresh crushed leaves is given to eat orally.	Oral (drinking)	Twice	Bovine
51.	Vernonis sp. Asteraceae	Buuzuwa (W)	Shrub	Wild	Flower, Stem, Leave	Babesia (35%)	Crushed flower mixed with water and filtered. The, the prepared mixture is given orally to drinking.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine
						Trypanosomiasis (11%)	The plant leave is crushed and mixed with water. Then the prepared juice is administrated orally; one liter a day till recovered.	Oral (drinking)	Once	Bovine, ovine, caprine
52.	Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae	Bitter leaf (E), Garaa (W), Girawa (A)	Shrub	Wild	Leave	Internal parasite (68%), Diarrhea (14%), Colic (6%)	The fresh plant leave is crushed, mixed with water and given orally. One liter one a day till the body condition return to normal state.	Oral (drinking)	Twice	Bovine
53.	Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Solanaceae	Gizawa (A)	Shrub (54%)	Wild	Leave, Stem	Blackleg (54%), Trypanosomiasis (47%), Snake bite (36%)	The fresh plant leave or stem is mixed with water and filtered. Then the juice is given orally in two litters till recovered.	Oral (drinking), Topical	Recovery	Bovine, caprine
54.	Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae	Ginger (E), Yenjjeeluwa (W), Zinjibil (A)	Herb	Cultivated	Stem (tuber)	Abdominal pain (81%), Bloat (94%)	The fresh plant stem or tuber is crushed, soaked in water with small amount of salt. Then, the prepared juice is administrated orally one glass or pan per day until recovery.	Oral	Recovery	Bovine, ovine, caprine

Keys; A=Amharic, national language of the country, E=English, W=Wolaitic, regional language of the Wolaita people.

3.4. Habitat and growth pattern of medicinal plants

In terms of growth patterns, herbs made up 68% of the higher plant species and were the most frequently gathered to treat cattle diseases, followed by shrubs (22%) and trees (10%) (Figure 3). A total of 54 medicinal plants were identified, of which 61.5% were collected from the wild, 25% were grown in private gardens, and the remaining plant species (13.5%) were collected from both wild and cultivated sources (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Growth habit and their habitat.

Figure 4. Collection habitat of medicinal plants.

3.5. Aspects of animal disease in the study area

This study found 20 different forms of animal illnesses. Practitioners noted that they might utilize one or several medicinal plant species to treat a certain type of sickness. Endoparasite infestation, blackleg, and colic were the most common types of diseases treated by nine medicinal plant species (Table 3). In the Wolaita zone, the therapeutic indication of medicinal plant-based medicines included all cattle species. Medicinal plant cures were most frequently prescribed for Bovine ailments (49), followed by Ovine and Caprine (22). This variance is most likely due to the availability and importance of various livestock species in the research area, rather than the therapeutic spectrum of medicinal herbs.

3.6. Parts of the medicinal plants utilized in the concoction of herbal remedies

In the study area, leaves (49%) were the most often employed plant components in the preparation of remedies, followed by seeds (19%), roots (16%), and stems (12%). The remaining fruit and all parts of the plants contributed for 3% and 1% of the remedy preparation (Figure 5). In regard to the state of the plant parts, freshly harvested plant parts dominated (80%), with the remaining 20% being used in both freshly and in a dried form (Figure 6).

Figure 5. Plant parts used for preparation of the remedies.

Figure 6. Use condition of the plant parts.

3.7. The ways that ethnobotanical medicines were administered

The target animal and the type of sickness determined how to administer ethnobotanical preparations. In the research area, the most common modes of administration were nasal, oral, topical/dermal, through the eyes, and others include applying the medication directly to a fresh lesion or cut. Oral (74%) and nasal (15%) delivery methods were the most frequently used. 10% and 1%, respectively, of ethnomedicines were applied via the cutaneous and ocular modes of administration (Figure 7).

Figure 7. The administration routes of ethnobotanical preparations.

3.8. Efficacy of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants

Blackleg, bloat, and endoparsistes each had the highest informants’ consensus factor (ICF) values, which were followed by trypanosomiasis (0.8) and colic (0.79) (Figure 8). Leech and rabies took the next two spots (0.75 each). In the same period, Blackleg, bloat, and endoparasites received the highest number of plant use citations (9) (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Informant consensus factor (ICF) of different livestock ailments in the study district.

3.9. Fidelity Level Index (FL)

For all reported medicinal plants, a fidelity level (FL) was calculated to evaluate their healing potential. Zingiber officinale had the highest level value (FL = 94%) for treating bloat. The leaves of Acalypha spp. had the highest fidelity level value (FL = 92%) for treating bloat again. Ensete ventricosum had shown the highest fidelity value (FL = 78%, each) for treating eye infections. Moreover, in the dermatological disease category, Trigonella foenum-graecum was shown to have the maximum possible fidelity value (FL = 77%) for treating endoparasite infestation (Table 3).

3.10. Direct Matrix Ranking

Based on the supposition that the plant species are well-known and regularly used by the local population to treat more than three different illnesses, the direct matrix ranking revealed that Croton macrostachyus and Acacia abyssinica were the first- and second-ranked multipurpose plant species in the study area, respectively (Table 4). Croton macrostachyus was reported to be a well-known figure in the sizable community and even used at the family level as a cash crop, firewood, construction material, charcoal production, food, and fodder, in order of importance, in addition to their medical value.

Table 4. Direct matrix ranking of medicinal plants by informants (A-C) based on usage category

	Medicinal plants name	Cash crop				Food			Fodder			Firewood				Construction			Charcoal
		A	B	C		A	B	C	A	B	C	A	B	C		A	B	C	A	B	C	Total	Rank
1.	Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile	5	5	5		0	0	0	1	3	2	5	1	5		5	5	5	5	5	5	62	1^st
2.	Acacia abyssinica Benth	5	5	5		0	0	0	0	0	1	5	5	5		5	5	5	5	5	5	61	2^nd
3.	Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman	3	2	4		5	5	5	5	5	5	1	1	1		2	3	1	4	5	2	59	3^rd
4.	Withania somnifera	0	0	0		0	0	0	5	5	5	5	5	5		5	4	3	5	5	5	57	4^th
5.	Eucalyptus globulus Labill.	5	5	5		0	0	0	0	0	0	5	2	5		5	5	5	5	4	4	55	5^th
6.	Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl.	5	5	5		0	0	0	0	0	0	3	1	5		5	5	5	5	5	5	54	6^th
7.	Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) Schübl.	5	5	5		5	5	5	5	5	5	1	0	2		2	1	3	0	0	0	54	7^th
8.	Cordia africana Lam.	5	5	5		0	0	0	0	0	0	5	1	5		5	2	5	5	5	5	53	8^th
9.	Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Warb.	3	1	2		1	0	0	0	0	0	5	5	5		3	2	3	5	5	5	45	9^th
10.	Vernonia amygdalina Delile	0	0	0		0	0	0	0	0	0	5	5	5		5	5	5	5	5	5	45	10^th
11.	Euphorbia tirucalli L.	5	5	5		0	0	0	0	0	0	5	5	5		4	3	3	0	0	0	40	11^th
12.	Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC.	0	0	0		0	0	0	5	4	1	0	0	0		5	5	5	5	5	5	40	12^th
13.	Coffea arabica L.	5	5	5		0	0	0	0	0	0	5	2	5		3	3	3	0	0	0	36	13^th
14.	Zingiber officinale Roscoe,	5	5	5		5	5	5	1	1	2	0	0	0		0	0	0	0	0	0	34	14^th
15.	Nicotiana tabacum L	4	2	4		0	0	0	0	0	0	3	2	4		1	1	2	1	1	1	26	15^th
	Total	160				46			66			145				157			147
	Rank	1^st				6^th			5^th			4^nd				2^rd			3^th

Based on the use criteria (5 = best; 4 = very good; 3 = good; 2 = less used; 1 = least used and 0 = no value).

3.11. Preference ranking

According to data collected from six important informants, based on the supposition that the plmnifera was the most potent remedy for treating blackleg. Tragisa spp. and Kalanchoe spp. were the next most efficient therapeutic plants. Ocimum lamiifolium and Prunus africana were, in comparison, the least effective medicinal plants, according to the data gathered from six key informants (Table 5).

Table 5. Preference ranking of medicinal plants to treat blackleg

№	Medicinal plants name	Informants
		I1	I2	I3	I4	I5	I6	Total score	Ranking
1.	Croton macrostachyus	3	5	4	4	2	3	21	5^th
2.	Croton macrostachyus	3	5	4	4	3	3	22	4^th
3.	Kalanchoe spp	3	5	4	4	5	3	24	3^rd
4.	Ocimum lamiifolium	0	2	2	1	4	2	11	9^th
5.	Prunus africana	0	2	2	3	4	3	14	8^th
6.	Sida schimperiana	2	2	5	2	2	3	16	7^th
7.	Stephania abyssinica	4	5	3	4	1	3	20	6^th
8.	Tragisa sp.	3	5	4	4	5	3	24	2^nd
9.	Withania somnifera	4	4	5	5	5	2	25	1^st

3.12. Cultural Importance Index

To investigate the cultural significance of the plants for the community, cultural importance index was evaluated. Four highly cited livestock diseases such as blackleg, bloat, endoparsistes, and colic were used to generate cultural importance (CI) and mean cultural importance (mCI) values for the top 17 culturally significant species. According to the findings, Stephania abyssinica had the highest mean cultural importance, followed by Pentas shemperina L. (Table 6).

Table 6. The 17 most significant plant species’ cultural importance index (CI) and mean cultural importance index (mCI) for treating most commonly occurring of diseases

№	Medicinal plants name	Blackleg (CI)	Bloat (CI)	Endoparsistes (CI)	Colic (CI)	mCI	Rank
1.	Acmella caulirhiza Del.	0.1	0.1	0.11	0.98	0.32	8
2.	Brassica nigra (L.) K.Koch	0.4	0.5	0.07	0	0.24	13
3.	Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile,	1	0.72	0.48	0	0.55	4
4.	Datura stramonium L.	0.8	0.11	0.02	0	0.23	14
5.	Helinus mystacinus (A it.) E. Mey. ex Steud	0.9	0.22	0	0	0.28	10
6.	Juniperus procera Hochst. Ex Endl	0.1	0.02	0.65	0	0.19	15
7.	Kalanchoe spp,	0.9	0.15	0	0	0.26	11
8.	Lepidium sativum L	0.2	0.5	0.54	0	0.31	9
9.	Pentas shemperina Hiern	1	0.12	0.76	0.85	0.68	2
10.	Prunus africana (Hook. f) Kalkm	0.5	0	0	0	0.13	17
11.	Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Rich.	0.9	0.1	0	0	0.25	12
12.	Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Walp.	1	0.13	0.72	0.89	0.69	1
13.	Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Walp.	0.7	0.15	0.54	0	0.35	6
14.	Tragisa sp.	1	0.1	0.76	0.82	0.67	3
15.	Trigonella foenum graecum	0.4	0.3	0	0	0.18	16
16.	Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal	1	0.62	0.39	0	0.50	5
17.	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	0.8	0.32	0.15	0	0.32	7

3.13. Threat to medicinal plants in the district

Both natural (such as dry conditions and landslides) and anthropogenic (firewood, overgrazing, agricultural expansion, construction, and medicinal use) activities have an impact on the survival of medicinal plants in the study district. The main hazards to medicinal plants in the study district were expansion of agriculture, followed by drought and construction (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Threats to medicinal plants.

4. Discussion

Livestock is essential to the livelihoods of the inhabitants of the study district for a variety of reasons, including food production, crop production, draft power, marketing, and revenue generation. Only 22 percent of women and 83 percent of men took part in this survey. The reason for this could be that the elders pass on their expertise to their older sons or to their chosen sons rather than their daughters. Similar results have also been reported from different region of Ethiopia (Birhan et al., 2018; Lulekal et al., 2014). Even though men reported using more medicinal plants than women on average, the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.53). This result agreed with the findings of Yigezu et al. (2014). The study also revealed that older groups of informants reported a considerably larger average number of therapeutic plants than the youngest group (p < 0.05). The main factors to this notable disparity are the growth of modern medicine and the younger age groups’ disinterest in traditional medications. In addition, the young group lacks interest due to the seasonal availability and their hard harvesting. As a result, a decline in positive attitudes toward traditional medicine is a sign that the knowledge and practice of using medicinal plants is eroding. The research by Lulekal et al. (2014) and Yigezu et al. (2014) got the same results. In accordance, significantly (p < 0.05) more medicinal plants were reported by illiterate respondents than by educated respondents. This is because respondents who were educated preferred modern treatment and paid less attention to traditional medicine. In turn, this leads to a decline in medical expertise in the following generation. In Birhan et al. (2018), the same conclusion was reported. Key informants could report significantly more medicinal plants than general informants (p < 0.05) as a result of their experience.

The identification and documentation of 33 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species, including their scientific and local names, habits, methods of preparation, and used components, was recorded. The dominant families were Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae. According to Lulekal et al. (2014), the family Asteraceae was also dominant in the Ankober area, North Showa, Amhara region of Ethiopia. However, the family Solanaceae has been found in various regions of Ethiopia (Birhanu & Abera, 2015; Leul et al., 2018; Mohammed et al., 2016; Wendimu et al., 2021), which goes against this study. The district is home to a diverse population, according to this result. Furthermore, the preference for native and endemic plants for therapeutic purposes shows that people’s knowledge is not recent but rather has a long history and is passed down from generation to generation over a long period of time. This result agreed with the work of Lulekal et al. (2014) and Mengesha (2016).

The medicinal plant growth patterns showed that herbs made up the largest share with 21 species (68%), followed by shrubs with 7 species (22%) and trees and climbers with 3 (10%) species each. In a different region of Ethiopia, a high consumption of shrubs for their therapeutic benefits were noted (Birhanu & Abera, 2015; Mohammed et al., 2016; Seid, 2019). This can occur as a result of the relatively high availability of herbs for the practitioners in the study districts. According to other findings (Giday & Teklehaymanot, 2013; Lulekal et al., 2014; Usmane et al., 2016), shrubs predominate.

The majority of the plants in this study—32 (61.5%)—were gathered from the wild, while 11 (25%) were taken from backyard gardens, and the remaining 7 (13.5%) species were found in both backyard and wild habitats. The results of other authors (Birhanu & Abera, 2015; Lulekal et al., 2014; Seid, 2019; Usmane et al., 2016) were consistent with this finding. This indicates that growing plants in a home garden for therapeutic reasons is quite uncommon in the research area. This decreased practice of growing medicinal plants in backyard gardens results in a lack of those plants throughout the year as desired by practitioners.

Although different plant parts have been used to treat various illnesses, leaves (49%) and seeds (19%) were the two plant parts most frequently used in the study district. This result is consistent with research conducted by Tekle (2015) in the southern Ethiopian Amaro special district, the western Ethiopian Horro Gudurru district (Birhanu & Abera, 2015), and the eastern Harerghe Melkabello district (Mohammed et al., 2016). It disagrees, however, with studies done by Jima and Megersa (2018) in the Bale zone of Oromia region’s Berbere District and by Seid (2019) in the Amhara region’s Enarj Enawega District’s east Gojjam Zone. The survival of plants in their natural habitat is not significantly impacted by using leaves for medication. However, the use of roots for medicinal purposes could result in the extinction of certain species from their natural habitats as well as the loss of local knowledge about medicinal plants. The majority of practitioners in the research district like plants in fresh 60 (80%) circumstances. The results of Chekole et al. (2015) are consistent with this finding. During the dry season, when healers make remedies, the gathering of fresh species of plants might result in the plants decline.

Oral form of administration accounted for 62 (74%) of all administrations, followed by nasal mode of administration (13%) and cutaneous mode of administration (8%). This result was consistent with that of Yigezu et al. (2014). There is no standard unit measurement for plant remedies in the study district; instead, people use their own system of measurement. The age, size, and type of animals being treated determine the dosage of the medicine. Other authors reported the same outcome (Abebe & Ishtiaq, 2022; Chaachouay et al., 2022; Leul et al., 2018; Tolossa et al., 2013).

Blackleg (0.82), general sickness (0.8), and pasteurellosis (0.79), according to informants’ consensus factors (ICF), had the highest values. Blackleg received the highest plant citation at the time, 10 (30.3%), followed by general disease 7(21.21%). This makes it very evident that blackleg is a widespread and well-known illness in the studied area. There are 10 ethnoveterinary medicinal herbs that can be used to treat this condition. To treat blackleg, Vernonia amygdalina was the most chosen medicinal plant species, followed by Solanecio gigas and Cucumis ficifolius. According to Tadesse et al. (2014), different districts used the same ethnoveterinary medicinal herbs that were identified in the research districts to treat blackleg.

In general, the research area has high biodiversity, and the locals have a wealth of traditional knowledge regarding the use of ethnobotanical medicines to cure a variety of livestock illnesses. The study area is also home to a variety of endemic species used in insect pest control such as bedbug (Wendimu & Tekalign, 2020) and mosquitos (Wendimu & Tekalign, 2021) in addition to their medicinal value. The findings of this investigation demonstrated that the district’s expertise and therapeutic plants are vulnerable. Therefore, it necessitates special consideration from the public, the government, and all stakeholders.

5. Conclusions

The communities that were chosen were mainly rural in nature, and livestock farmers are looking into the local biodiversity and indigenous knowledge systems to satisfy the demands of animal health and productivity. In the study county, 54 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species belonging to 28 different families were discovered. The Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae plant families made up the majority of those that were noted. Herbs were the most frequently collected to cure bovine sickness and made up higher plant species in terms of growth patterns. The majority of the plants were gathered in the wild. According to practitioners, they would use one or several therapeutic plant species depending on the disease. Nine different species of medicinal plants were used to cure the most frequent ailments, including colic, blackleg, and endoparasite infestation. Bovine ailments were most frequently treated using medicinal plant remedies. The plant’s fresh leaves were the plant parts that were most frequently used to make medicines. The most popular administration routes of prepared remedies in the study area included nasal, oral, topical/dermal, through the eyes, and others including applying the drug directly to a fresh lesion or cut. Blackleg, bloat, and endoparasites had the highest informants’ consensus factor (ICF) values, according to the data. According to data collected from six important informants, Withania somnifera was the most potent remedy for treating blackleg. The main dangers to medicinal plants in the study district were the expansion of agriculture, followed by drought and development. Despite the fact that the study area in the districts of the Wolaita Zone is abundant in different medicinal plants, there are currently few attempts being made to investigate the botanical species and local knowledge associated with them. Local communities and responsible organizations must protect medicinal plants to stop further losses. Additionally, it is important to choose medically higher potential plants based on the relevant ethnobotanical indices for further investigation, such as phytochemical analysis and pharmacological and toxicological studies.

Authors’ contributions

Abenezer Wendimu, Wondimagegnehu Tekalign, Elias Bojago and Yitbarek Abrham designed the research, collected data, organized the data on the computer, did the analysis, interpretation, and identification, and wrote the draft manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are included in the body of this paper.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The Wolaita Sodo University Institutional Ethical Review Board (IRB) gave their approval for the matter of ethics. The International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics was followed when collecting ethnobiological data for this study. All respondents were given a brief explanation of the study’s purpose and oral informed consent was obtained prior to the interviews because signing paperwork at the study site is uncommon. All research was conducted in accordance with the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Associated with Their Use of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Traditional knowledge remains the property of all participants, and any use of it other than for scientific publication requires additional prior consent from the traditional owners and agreement on access to benefits resulting from further use.

Correction

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to the agricultural office and administration of the Kindo Koysha and Kindo Didaye Districts. We also want to express our gratitude to the informants and development agents who helped us gather all the data we needed for the study. We should also be grateful to Wolaita Sodo University for approving our request to conduct the research.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The study received no funding from government, commercial, or non-profit financing organizations.

Notes on contributors

Abenezer Wendimu

Mr. Abenezer Wendimu is an Educator, Researcher and Postgraduate student in Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia. He is involving in research and community service activities related to the area of his field of interest. The focus of his research interest is related to zoology, parasitology, ethnozoology, ecology, conservation, and management, and published many articles as a first author and co-author. He is available as reviewer in various national and international journals. Has Awarded to BEST RESEARCHER AWARD For the Contribution and Honourable Achievement in Innovative Research in 10th Edition of International Research Awards on Infectious Diseases, INFECTIOUS 2022. He is currently a postgraduate student in zoology stream, and aggressively working in aforementioned research areas.