Local rice consumption and attributes considered in urban Ghana: Does internal migration matter?

Abstract

This study compares local rice consumption by migrants and natives in urban Ghana, determinants of local rice consumption, and attributes considered by consumers. Primary data was sourced from 304 migrants and natives. Likert scale, multinomial probit and fractional probit were estimated. There is low local rice consumption in urban Ghana. Local rice consumption is higher among migrants than natives/indigenes. On average, local rice forms 38% of rice consumed in urban Ghana. Attributes considered in choosing preferred rice are aroma, availability, cleanliness, healthiness, stickiness, packaging, appearance, price, standard of measurement, quantity obtained after cooking, taste and time taken to cook. Being a migrant, female, older or low-income, purchasing rice on open markets, having relatives who grow rice, eating lower proportion of rice away from home, and consumption of popular rice directly influence local rice consumption. Producers should improve local rice attributes like aroma, cleanliness, packaging, standards of measurement and availability.

Keywords:

• local rice consumption
• imported/foreign rice
• migrants
• natives/indigenes
• internal migration
• urban Ghana
• rice attributes

1. Introduction

Rice is the second most important cereal after maize and is increasingly a main part of the diet in many Ghanaian homes due to its relative convenience in preparation and palatable recipes (Taylor, 2018). In Ghana, rice has become a major staple crop in recent times although the crop has been cultivated for several years. It is an essential food for both rural and urban dwellers and is gradually taking over from traditional crops, mainly root, tuber, and cereals like maize and millet (MoFA, 2015). In Ghana, both imported and domestically produced rice are sold on the same market in the urban centers, but local supply can be irregular. About 70% of rice sold through retail outlets in Ghana is imported. Urban consumers, who represent 55% of Ghana’s population, account for 76% of total imported rice consumption (Taylor, 2018). The high consumption of rice, especially in the urban regions, is perhaps, due to the relative easiness of rice preparation compared to most of the local foods (Kwofie et al., 2016). Ghanaian urban consumers prefer imported rice due to its higher quality. Only 20% of domestically produced rice is consumed in urban areas due to its perceived poor quality and higher concentration of debris and stones. The import share of rice consumed in Ghana stays above 50% of total rice consumption (MoFA, 2018).

With import substitution, an important policy objective in Ghana, rice enjoys trade protection in the form of a 40% import tariff (Ragasa & Chapoto, 2016). Sector policies complement trade policy by creating an enabling environment for increased investment in local rice production and improved competitiveness of domestic rice. Substituting rice import and providing a higher-quality product that is more acceptable to Ghanaian consumers and can compete with imported rice has over the years been the objective of the government (MoFA, 2017). Ghanaians pay attention to grain quality and favourable pricing in their choice of rice types (Danso-Abbeam et al., 2014).

The promotion of domestic rice production and consumption has been one of the new transformational agenda adopted by the Government of Ghana to reduce rice importation and forestall its negative impact on the balance of payment (Tey & Brindal, 2014). This has resulted in a gradual shift towards cultivation of more preferred aromatic varieties, with an estimated 45% of rice farmers now planting such varieties (Ragasa et al., 2014). Consumption of locally produced rice is, however, far lower than imported rice and is known to be influenced by Price, grain and consumer characteristics (Danso-Abbeam et al., 2014). The level of local rice consumption among urban migrants and natives of Ghana is not empirically known. It is imperative, therefore, to evaluate the level of local rice consumption, desirable attributes of local rice and determinants of local rice consumption among migrants and natives in urban Ghana with empirical models.

The purpose of this study was to compare local rice consumption by migrants and natives in Greater Kumasi Metropolis and examine the determinants of local rice consumption and attributes considered by consumers. This study achieves this broad objective by addressing the following research questions. (1) What is the level of local rice consumption among urban migrants and natives in Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana? (2) Which attributes are considered by consumers in choosing preferred rice? (3) Which factors determine local rice consumption among migrants and natives in urban Kumasi, Ghana?

The study contributes to the ongoing debate on local and foreign rice quality by examining whether internal migration matters in the consumption of local rice, and the attributes considered by consumers in urban Ghana. The study further compares local rice consumption by migrants and natives in urban Ghana. The remaining section of the paper is arranged as follows: section two discusses the literature of the study, specifically, rice and rice consumption is discussed, attributes considered in rice buying, and the level of rice importation in Ghana. Section three is devoted to the study materials and methods, it consists of the study area, theoretical and empirical models, while the last section consists of the results, discussions and the relevant conclusions and recommendations.

2. Literature review

2.1. Rice consumption in Ghana

Rice consumption and importation are increasing in Ghana, outnumbering other cereal crops. Annual per capita rice consumption has more than quadrupled over the last 60 years, from 6.5 kg in 1957 to 32 kg in 2015 (MoFA, 2018). This has resulted in a rising disparity between local supply and demand. Imports are being used to meet Ghana’s unmet rice demand. Ghana purchased 54% of its rice needs from China, Thailand, Vietnam, and the United States in 2015 (MoFA, 2018). Ghana’s annual rice demand is currently little over one million metric tons, and it is expected to continue to climb (MoFA, 2018).

According to Asante et al. (2013), the qualities of rice offered in Ghana cause consumers to favor enhanced rice varieties over local kinds. Ghanaian customers prefer imported rice over locally grown rice due to the absence of foreign materials, superior grain quality, greater ease of cooking, and fragrant quality of many imported types, according to the researchers.

Anang et al. (2011) ranked the features that rice consumers in Ghana picked as their favorites. Taste, cooking quality, cooking duration, and aroma were identified as the most important factors in determining rice quality in the study. Rice preferences vary greatly between countries and even between different regions within the same country (Toriyama et al., 2005). Consumers in the United States place a great value on rice with specific cooking and processing qualities, but those in the Middle East prefer long grain kinds that are well milled and have a strong aroma.

Consumers in Europe prefer unscented long grain rice (Adeoye et al., 2011). Consumers in Nigeria enjoy clean, flavorful, and long-grain rice, according to studies, and these features are among the reasons why many choose imported rice to locally produced rice (Lançon et al., 2003). In Togo, city dwellers prefer imported non-parboiled rice to indigenous non-parboiled rice, owing to its cleanliness, superior taste, larger swelling capacity, and longer shelf life after cooking (Fiamohe et al., 2015).

2.2. Rice quality characteristics and quality attributes of local rice

Consumer preferences for particular rice quality features have market-specific effects on rice prices in specific markets (Anang et al., 2011). Consumer preferences are also influenced by rice cooking characteristics such as cooking time, water absorption ratio, elongation ratio, swelling capacity, and amylose concentration. Grain elongation during cooking is influenced by both genetic and processing parameters. There is less bran on the grain, less expansion of the starch granules, highly polished rice has a higher elongation ratio. Additionally, smaller grains and highly polished rice need less time to cook than larger grains and rice with coarser surfaces (Mohapatra & Bal, 2006). According to Rutsaert et al. (2013), rice that swells more is thought to be able to feed a higher number of people with the same amount of grain. Cooked rice’s swelling capacity is determined by the variety and amount of time it has been stored. Rice that has been stored for a longer period of time takes longer to cook. Local aromatic cultivars in Ghana are superior to imported kinds in terms of nutrient content, according to Diako et al. (2011). Imported rice, on the other hand, has better cooking qualities. Domestic rice varieties in Ghana take longer to cook, have a greater water uptake ratio, and contain more amylose than imported types.

The percentage of cracked kernels, the share of “chalky” kernels, the degree of co-mingled varieties and organoleptic qualities are all conventional measures of rice quality attributes, according to the United States International Trade Commission (MoFA, 2018). Chemical features such as gelatinization temperature, apparent amylose content, gel consistency, alkali spreading value, and aroma are all varietal characteristics. Shape and size, grain color, chalkiness, bulk density, thermal conductivity, equilibrium moisture content, and grain flow ability are all physical features (MoFA, 2015). Moisture content, grain purity, physical and insect damage, cracked grains, and the presence of immature grains are all environmental factors to consider (MoFA, 2015). According to observations made in Ghana’s numerous markets, most unbranded indigenous rice contains more than 25% broken kernels. As a result, this rice is considered low-quality.

2.3. Factors influencing local rice consumption

In both urban and rural markets, many varieties and brands of imported rice compete with locally produced rice. Sultana, Lele, Royal Feast, Uncle Sam, Uncle Bob, Savanna, Neat, Tiger, Special Lady, and Cindy are some of the imported brands (Diako et al., 2010). These brands differ from one another and from local rice in terms of origin, flavor, cooking ease, price, and grade (generally, percentage broken grains). In Ghana, there is a scarcity of data on the factors that influence consumer choice for locally produced and processed rice. Diako et al. (2010) found that understanding and consumption of local rice in general and local aromatic kinds in particular, were restricted among 390 rice users in Accra.

Rice choice and consumption are not uniform across all types and brands. Consumer preferences for specific types of rice are influenced by factors such as physical appearance, ease of cooking, aroma, lack of foreign material, percentage of broken rice, perception of nutrient content, and origin (Diako et al., 2010). Consumer experience and marketing methods are critical in a liberalized market for creating customer loyalty to a specific type of rice. To enhance demand for local Ghanaian rice, build its competitiveness, and help to safeguard future markets for rice farmers, it will be required to ensure that local rice types are grown and processed in a way that allows them to match the quality qualities desired by consumers (Diako et al., 2010). Such attempts to meet consumer demand should be combined with ongoing initiatives to enhance rural livelihoods by increasing rice output.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Study area and data

The study was conducted in Greater Kumasi Metropolis in Ashanti Region of Ghana. Kumasi, the second largest city in Ghana, is cosmopolitan and the capital of Ashanti Region. Local rice production is common in the Ashanti Region of Ghana due to favourable climatic and soil conditions. As centrally located in Ghana, Ashanti Region remains a center for many businesses in the country. As a result, the region has historically attracted several migrants from other parts of the country, especially northern Ghana (Amfo et al., 2021; GSS Ghana Statistical Service, 2013). For instance, many people migrate from northern Ghana to Ashanti Region and other parts of southern Ghana during the long dry season, which prevents them from being redundant (Amfo et al., 2021). The majority of these migrants settle in the regional capital, Kumasi. These migrants might be permanent or temporary/seasonal (Amfo et al., 2021).

Primary data was sourced from 304 migrants and natives in the Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana. Internal migration refers to movement of people from one region of Ghana to settle either temporarily or permanently in another region (GSS Ghana Statistical Service, 2013). Moreover, a non-migrant is someone born in his/her current dwelling place (GSS, 2008). Thus, in this study, a migrant is someone who is a non-native of Ashanti Region but has immigrated and settled in the region temporarily or permanently. In contrast, a native is an indigene of Ashanti Region. Therefore, migrants were born outside Ashanti Region while natives/indigenes were borne in Ashanti Region.

During the data collection, there was a screening question that specifically distinguished migrants from natives. The screening question enquired about the status of a respondent in Ashanti Region of Ghana with two options: native (an Ashanti) or migrant (other tribe). There was a follow-up question that asked about the type of migrant with two options: permanent and temporary/seasonal migrant.

3.2. Sampling procedure

Multistage sampling procedure was used to select respondents for the study. In stage one, a stratified sampling procedure was used to classify suburbs in the Kumasi Metropolis into two strata: migrant and native suburbs. In the second stage, four suburbs were randomly selected in each stratum to get a total of eight suburbs for the study. The four migrant suburbs selected for the study were Ayigya, Sawaba, Angloga and Fanti New Town. The four native suburbs covered for the study were Oforikrom, Bantama, Bonso and Asokwa. Migrant/settler suburbs refer to those dominated by migrants from other parts of the country. In contrast, native suburbs refer to those dominated by indigenes of Ashanti Region. The stratification made it relatively easier to sample migrants and natives for the study. In the third and last stage of sampling, 38 households were randomly selected from each of the eight suburbs sampled to arrive at 304 households comprising 152 migrant households and 152 native households.

The study targeted household members who play leading roles in food preparations and purchasing decisions. Thus, members in charge of household food shopping and cooking chores were sampled and interviewed. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to obtain cross-sectional data via personal interview (face-to-face interaction with migrant and native households).

3.3. Data analysis

The five-point Likert scale ranking technique, multinomial probit and fractional probit regressions were employed to analyze the data and draw conclusions. In addition, descriptive statistics was used to explore the level of local rice consumption among urban migrants and natives of Ghana.

3.3.1. Likert scale ranking technique

A five-point Likert scale ranking technique was used to examine attributes considered by consumers in choosing preferred rice. Households were made to rank 12 attributes of rice on a scale of 1 to 5 as unconsidered, not really considered, indifferent, considered, or highly considered, respectively. The attributes examined using Likert scale are as follows: aroma, taste, availability/consistency in supply, cleanliness, healthiness, packaging, appearance of grains, price, standard of measurement, time taken to cook, quantity obtained after cooking, non-sticky when cooked.

3.3.2. Multinomial probit regression

Multinomial probit regression was used to investigate the factors influencing local rice consumption. It fits discrete/categorical response variables that have more than two outcomes and do not possess any natural ordering (Greene, 2012; StataCorp, 2015). The response variable for the multinomial probit estimation was local rice consumption: 1=only local rice, 2=only imported/foreign rice, and 3=both. Hence, there were three responses/outcomes (1, 2 and 3) in the response variable. To facilitate the estimation of the multinomial probit, there is only one choice/observation made by each respondent (migrants and natives). According to StataCorp (2015); Cameron and Trivedi (2005), multinomial probit uses latent-variable framework. The latent variable for the $j^{th}$ choice, $j=1,\dots ,J,$ is

(1) $n_{ij}=z_i{\alpha }_j+{\epsilon }_{ij}$(1)

where the $1\times q$ row vector $z_i$ consists of observed independent variables for the $i^{th}$ migrant or native. Moreover, ${\alpha }_j$ is the $J$ vector of regression coefficient, and it is linked to $z_j$. ${\epsilon }_{i,1,\dots ,}{\epsilon }_{i,j}$, which represents independently and identically standard normal. Following from StataCorp (2015); Cameron and Trivedi (2005), a migrant or native chooses the alternative $k$ such that $n_{ik}\ge n_{im}$ for $m\ne k$. Assuming that migrant or native $i$ chooses alternative $k$, and the difference between latent variable $n_{ij}$ and $J-1$ and others:

(2) $v_{ijk}=n_{ij}-n_{ik}=z_i\left({\alpha }_j-{\alpha }_k\right)+{\epsilon }_{ij}-{\epsilon }_{ik}=z_i{\gamma }_j+{\epsilon }_{ij}$(2)

The probability that $k$ is chosen is:

(3) $Pr\left(iselectsk\right)=\mathrm{P}\mathrm{r}\left(v_{i1k}\le 0,\dots ,v_{i,k}\le 0\right)$(3)

(4) $=\mathrm{P}\mathrm{r}\left({ϵ}_{i1}\le z_i{\gamma }_i,\dots ,{ϵ}_{i,}J-1\le -z_i{\gamma }_i-1\right)$(4)

In the multinomial probit regression, 3=both local and imported/foreign rice was used as the base outcome. Thus, 3=both local and imported/foreign rice was set to 0. The coefficients for the remaining outcomes/responses, 1=only local rice and 2=only imported/foreign rice, assessed changes in local rice consumption in comparison to 3=both local and imported/foreign rice.

3.3.3. Fractional probit regression

Fractional probit regression was used to assess the factors influencing the proportion of local rice in total household rice consumption. Primary data gathered through field survey for the study indicated that half of urban folks interviewed do not eat local rice while a quarter consume only local season (Table 4). Hence, the proportion of local rice in total household rice consumption was 0% or 100%, respectively. This led to a response variable which is more than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 1 $\left[0\le y\le 1\right]$. Therefore, fractional regression was suitable for the data (instead of beta regression which is suitable for response variables with values ranging between 0 and 1).

Therefore, the dependent variable in the fractional probit regression was proportion of local rice in total household rice consumption. It was computed as a fraction of local rice in total rice consumed by a household. Households that consumed only local rice were assigned 1 while those who did not consume local rice at all (they consumed only imported rice) were assigned 0. However, most of the households consumed both local and imported rice; thus, the proportion was computed in the form of a fraction. For instance, if 63% of rice consumed by a household was local, it was assigned 0.63.

Fractional regression is a model of the mean of the response variable $y$ conditional on covariates $x$, denoted by ${\mu }_x$. Since $y$ is [0, 1], it is ensured that ${\mu }_x$ is in [0, 1]. This is achieved by employing logit or probit for ${\mu }_x$. In this study, probit fractional regression was estimated. Following StataCorp (2015), log-likelihood function for fractional regression is denoted as follows:

(5) $\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{L}=\sum _{\mathrm{j}=1}^{\mathrm{N}}{\mathrm{w}}_{\mathrm{j}}{\mathrm{y}}_{\mathrm{j}}ln\left\{\mathrm{G}\left({\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{j}}^{\prime }\beta \right)\right\}+{\mathrm{w}}_{\mathrm{j}}\left(1-{\mathrm{y}}_{\mathrm{i}}\right)\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\left\{1-\mathrm{G}\left({\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{j}}^{\prime }\beta \right)\right\}$(5)

where $N$ represents sample size (304 migrant and native households); $y_j$ represents the response variable (proportion of local rice in total household rice consumption); $w_j$ represents the optional weight; $\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{L}$ is maximized. The functional form for $\mathrm{G}\left({\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{j}}^{\prime }\beta \right)$ for the probit fractional model is

6) $\hspace{0.17em}\left({\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{j}}^{\prime }\beta \right)$6)

where $x_j$ represents covariates for individual $j$, and $\hspace{0.17em}$ represents standard normal cumulative density function.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents

Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents examined in the study are outlined in Table 1. The study disaggregated the respondents into internal migrant and native residents of urban Ghana. Migrant residents were either temporary/seasonal (54%) or permanent (46%) in the study area. Due to the unimodal rainfall pattern, poor soil and climatic conditions, infrastructural development and job opportunities in Northern Ghana, many people migrate to the southern part on temporary/seasonal or permanent basis (Amfo et al., 2022). Thus, some people migrate to Southern Ghana during the long dry season on temporary/seasonal basis to engage in various forms of short-term income-generating activities (Amfo et al., 2022). However, some have relocated permanently to the study area.

Table 1. Variable description and socioeconomic characteristics of respondents

Variable	Description	Measurement	Aggregate (n=304)
			Mean	Standard deviation
Residential status	1=native, 0=migrant	%	0.50	0.500
Type of migrant	1=temporary/seasonal, 0=permanent	%	0.536	0.500
Sex	1=male, 0=female	%	0.408	0.492
Age	Respondent’s age	Years	37.865	11.707
Education	Years of schooling	Years	12.961	4.935
Income	Monthly household income	US$*	400.500	218.870
Grow rice	1=a relative grows rice, 0=otherwise	%	0.224	0.417
Consideration of rice popularity	1=considers rice popularity before buying, 0=otherwise	%	0.385	0.487
Consideration of FDA certification	1=considers FDA certification before buying rice, 0=otherwise	%	0.273	0.446
Supermarket	1=consumer buys rice from supermarkets, 0=consumer buys rice from open markets	%	0.421	0.495
Eat away from home	1=eat cooked rice away from home, 0=otherwise	%	0.730	0.445
Proportion eaten away from home	Proportion of cooked rice eaten away from home	%	0.253	0.211

*Exchange rate: Ghana cedis (GH¢) is the currency of Ghana; US$1 = GH¢6.57.

Majority (60%) of the respondents, as shown in Table 1, were females. In Ghana, women usually take the leading role in food preparations and purchase decisions (Amfo et al., 2019). According to He et al. (2019); Demont and Ndour (2015), women play essential roles in household food provision, choice and processing. The field survey further indicated that the majority of males who were in charge of household food shopping and cooking were unmarried or had no female household members. The average age of respondents was 38 years, with 13 years of formal education. This means that on average, a respondent had attained Senior High-School education.

The respondents had an average monthly household income of US$400. About one-fifth of the respondents had relatives who cultivate rice. The remainder might have relatives who were farmers but did not cultivate rice. About 40% of the respondents considers the popularity of rice before purchasing. Such people purchase and consume brands of rice that are well known and patronized by many people. Also, a little above one-fourth of the respondents considers certification of rice by Food and Drugs Authority (FDA) of Ghana before purchasing. FDA is a Government of Ghana Regulatory Agency that ensures the safety and quality of food and drugs to safeguard human health in the country. Thus, consumers who strictly consume FDA-certified food products have higher consciousness about their health. Furthermore, the respondents purchase rice from supermarkets (42%) as well as open markets (58%). Close to 75% of the respondents eat cooked rice away from home. Such households purchase cooked rice from restaurants, street food vendors, canteens, cafeterias and other eateries. Nonetheless, as further indicated in Table 1, this forms only one-quarter of total rice consumed by a household.

Differences in socioeconomic characteristics between migrant and native residents were identified (Table 2). Close to 40% of the migrants were males while about half of the natives were males. Male migrants in charge of household food shopping and cooking were predominantly those who stayed alone in the study area or those without female members. On average, migrant respondents were older than natives. Natives had higher years of formal education and income than migrants. There were more migrant residents (32%) who had relatives cultivating rice than natives (13%). This implies that many non-natives migrated from farming communities; and thus, had relatives who were farmers. More natives consider popularity and FDA certification of rice before purchasing than migrants. Eating cooked rice away from home was more prevalent among migrants (77%) than natives (69%). Many (temporary/seasonal) migrants are without household members and cooking appliances at destinations, making it slightly difficult to cook compared with natives.

Table 2. Differences in socioeconomic characteristics between migrant and native residents

Variable	Migrants (n=152)		Natives (n=152)
	Mean	Standard deviation	Mean	Standard deviation
Sex (%)	0.375	0.486	0.441	0.498
Age (years)	42.914	10.937	32.816	10.201
Education (years)	11.553	5.350	14.368	4.032
Income (US$)	346.952	218.184	454.047	206.758
Grow rice (%)	0.322	0.469	0.125	0.332
Consideration of rice popularity (%)	0.257	0.438	0.513	0.501
Consideration of FDA certification (%)	0.184	0.390	0.362	0.482
Where consumer buys rice (%)	0.368	0.484	0.474	0.501
Whether consumer eats cooked rice away from home (%)	0.770	0.422	0.691	0.464
Proportion of cooked rice eaten away from home (%)	0.264	0.206	0.242	0.217

4.2. Local rice consumption in Urban Ghana

The pattern of local rice consumption by migrant and native residents in urban Ghana is encapsulated in Table 3. One-fourth of urban folks in Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana consume only local rice while half consume only imported/foreign rice. This implies that half of urban folks do not eat locally cultivated rice in Ghana. However, a substantial proportion (23%) consume both local and imported/foreign rice. This observation suggests high level of imported/foreign rice consumption among urban dwellers in Ghana. This trend is attributable to the fact that many Ghanaians have developed favourable preference for imported/foreign rice due to its preferred attributes (especially taste) over the local varieties.

Table 3. Local rice consumption in urban Ghana by migrant and native residents

Variable	Description	Aggregate	Migrants	Natives
Type of rice consumed (%)	Only local	26.640	36.180	17.110
	Only imported/foreign	50.660	33.550	67.760
	Both	22.700	30.260	15.130
Quantity of rice consumed per month (kg)	Mean	14.622	14.243	15.000
	Standard deviation	6.707	6.947	6.459
	Minimum	5.000	5.000	5.000
	Maximum	30.000	30.000	30.000
Quantity of local rice consumed per month (kg)	Mean	11.033	10.990	11.122
	Standard deviation	6.886	6.893	6.942
	Minimum	5.000	5.000	5.000
	Maximum	30.000	30.000	30.000
Quantity of imported/foreign rice consumed per month (kg)	Mean	12.511	10.876	13.770
	Standard deviation	7.069	6.997	6.890
	Minimum	5.000	5.000	5.000
	Maximum	30.000	30.000	30.000
Proportion of local rice in total household rice consumption (%)	Mean	38.076	51.283	24.868
	Standard deviation	43.091	42.931	39.137
	Minimum	0.000	0.000	0.000
	Maximum	100.000	100.000	100.000

Compared with natives (17%), a higher proportion of migrants (36%) consume only local rice. Conversely, a higher proportion of natives (68%) consume only imported/foreign rice than migrants (34%). In most cases, migrants are relatively poor and deprived in communities (Amfo et al., 2022). Most people who migrate from other parts of Ghana to Kumasi Metropolis in search of greener pastures are usually in the low-income bracket. Such low-income migrants could afford local rice more easily, especially the cheaper brands with low value addition, than imported/foreign rice. Also, some people migrated from farming communities/households; and thus, had relatives who cultivate local rice. Such farming relatives could offer migrants with local rice for household consumption.

Quantity of rice consumed by a typical urban household per month ranged from 5 kg to 30 kg, with an average of 15 kg. On average, local rice forms 38% of rice consumed by households in Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana. This observation is an indication that over 60% of rice consumed in Urban Ghana is imported. However, the minimum and maximum values of local rice proportion in total rice consumption reveal that some households in the metropolis do not consume local rice at all while others consume only local rice. Also, on average, local rice constitutes a higher proportion of rice consumed by migrant households (51%) than native households (25%). This trend is consistent with the fact that local rice consumption is higher among migrants than indigenes.

4.3. Attributes considered in choosing preferred rice

Attributes considered by urban households in choosing preferred rice are exhibited in Table 4. The attributes include aroma, availability, cleanliness, healthiness, stickiness, packaging, appearance, price, standard of measurement, quantity obtained after cooking, taste, and time taken to cook. Consumers look out for these attributes in deciding whether to consume local or imported/foreign rice or a particular variety/brand. Majority of the respondents consider aroma (55%) and taste (83%) in choosing the preferred rice. Therefore, the palatability and aroma of rice determine the level of its consumption. Availability is another attribute considered by about 70% of rice consumers in choosing the preferred rice. Such consumers prefer types/brands of rice that are consistent in supply; and thus, easily accessible and reliable in supply. Also, cleanliness (62%) and healthiness (33%) are paramount in choosing preferred type of rice. This implies that consumers prefer rice brands with no foreign materials and are hygienic. Consumers purchase rice they trust are healthy for human consumption since the production, processing, storage and transportation processes could render rice unsafe/unhealthy. For instance, using excessive and unapproved agrochemicals for the production and processing of rice could render it unwholesome. Such a phenomenon alerts consumer consciousness about their safety.

Table 4. Attributes considered in choosing preferred rice

Rice attribute	Rank level of consideration (%)
	Highly considered	Considered	Indifferent	Not really considered	Unconsidered
Aroma	27.96	26.97	9.87	28.29	6.91
Taste	45.72	37.50	3.62	13.16	0.00
Availability/consistency in supply	29.61	39.14	5.59	22.37	3.29
Cleanliness	28.95	32.57	4.93	27.30	6.25
Healthiness	7.57	25.33	10.86	42.11	14.14
Packaging	10.53	25.99	5.26	31.25	26.97
Appearance of grains	6.58	23.03	2.63	38.82	28.95
Price	61.18	34.21	4.61	0.00	0.00
Standard of measurement	9.54	28.29	3.29	49.67	9.21
Time taken to cook	7.57	33.88	3.62	24.01	30.92
Quantity obtained after cooking	14.80	24.01	14.47	37.50	9.21
Non-sticky when cooked	28.29	25.00	11.84	29.93	4.93

Also, 37% of consumers prefer rice brands/types with good packaging (Table 4). In addition to attractiveness, package conveys relevant information about rice such as brand, name and contact of manufacturer/producer, country of origin, weight, nutritional value, manufacturing and expiry dates. Furthermore, pleasing appearance/whiteness of rice grains is paramount to 30% of consumers. Ehiakpor et al. (2017) ranked good-looking grains of rice as the most prominent trait considered by consumers in choosing a rice brand. Also, Mottaleb and Mishra (2016) reported that the visual appearance of rice grain is an important attribute that affects a consumer’s choice. Price of rice is an attribute considered by 95% of consumers. There is high variation in price of rice depending on brand/manufacturing firm. In developing countries like Ghana, majority of consumers are low income; and thus, prefer rice brands with relatively low prices. Consumers further consider cooking features of rice such as time taken to cook (41%), quantity obtained when cooked (39%) and non-sticky when cooked (53%). According to Ehiakpor et al. (2017), major attributes considered by households in purchasing rice are cleanliness, packaging, taste, aroma, ease of cooking, volume of expansion after cooking and price. Moreover, Abubakar et al. (2015); Alhassan et al. (2015) indicated that colour, aroma and taste are important attributes considered by consumers in choosing foreign or local rice.

4.4. Determinants of local rice consumption in urban Ghana

Determinants of local rice consumption in Urban Ghana were estimated using multinomial probit and fractional probit and the results shown in Table 5. Whilst the multinomial probit estimates show the factors influencing local rice consumption, the fractional probit identifies the factors influencing the proportion of local rice in total household rice consumption. The pseudo R-squared indicates that about 60% of variations in the proportion of local rice in total household rice consumption could be attributed to the explanatory variables used for the fractional probit estimation. The Wald chi-squared in both estimations are statistically significant. This means that the explanatory variables jointly contribute to variations in the consumption of local and imported rice among consumers in the study area.

Table 5. Results from multinomial probit and fractional probit regression

Variable	Coefficient (z-value)
	Multinomial probit estimates		Fractional probit estimates
	Local rice	Imported rice
Sex	−0.614 (−1.50)	1.115 (2.04)**	−0.264 (−1.73)*
Age	0.054 (2.50)**	−0.070 (−2.56)**	0.022 (2.97)***
Education	0.006 (0.14)	−0.055 (−1.12)	0.006 (0.32)
Income	−0.0001 (−3.22)***	0.0001 (2.15)**	−0.0003 (−5.02)***
Where consumer buys rice	−1.730 (3.23)***	4.286 (5.70)***	−0.743 (−3.99)***
Whether a relative grows rice	1.507 (3.73)***	−2.756 (−2.50)**	0.803 (4.17)***
Proportion of rice eaten away from home	−4.355 (−4.35)***	−0.028 (−0.02)	−1.315 (−3.54)***
Consideration of rice popularity	−13.521 (0.001)	2.392 (3.81)***	−1.320 (−6.53)***
Consideration of FDA certification	−12.116 (0.001)	2.529 (2.99)***	−1.308 (−4.38)***
Consideration of rice availability	0.224 (1.06)	0.744 (2.68)***	−0.164 (−2.05)**
Residential status	0.283 (0.64)	1.154 (2.34)**	−0.197 (−1.31)
Constant	−1.356 (−1.08)	0.347 (0.22)	0.294 (0.59)
Number of observations	304		304
Pseudo R-squared	–		0.584
Wald chi-squared	88.66***		251.19***
Log likelihood	−89.88		–
Log pseudo likelihood	–		−84.138

*, ** and *** denote statistical significance at 10, 5% and 1%, respectively. The base outcome for the multinomial probit estimation is consumption of both local and imported rice

Sex was identified as a significant factor that positively influence the consumption of imported rice in the multinomial probit regression. This indicates that being a male consumer increases the likelihood of consuming imported/foreign rice. Sex is also seen as a significant and negative factor in the fractional probit regression. This indicates that being a male consumer reduces the proportion of local rice in the total household rice consumption. Therefore, males consume lower quantities of local rice than females. This study sampled and interviewed household members who play leading roles in food preparations and purchasing decisions. Hence, the results imply that males involved in household food shopping and cooking decisions have a higher probability of choosing imported/foreign rice over local rice than their female counterparts. In Ghana and most African countries, females are traditionally in charge of cooking and purchasing of food for their respective households (Amfo et al., 2019; Ben, 2015; Kassali et al., 2010). Moreover, Demont and Ndour (2015) asserted that women play essential roles in household food provision and choice. As a result, females from low-income households usually develop various economizing strategies in food shopping than males. One of these economizing strategies could be the purchase/consumption of local rice since it is relatively less expensive in Ghana than imported/foreign rice (depending on the level of value addition). According to Ehiakpor et al. (2017); Ogundele (2014), the probability of consuming local rice is greater for females than males.

Age is significant and positive for local rice but negative for imported rice in the multinomial probit regression (Table 5). This implies that the consumption of local rice increases with age while the consumption of imported/foreign rice decreases with age. The fractional probit regression shows that age significantly and positively influences the proportion of local rice in the total rice consumed by a household increases with. Thus, older people are likely to increase the proportion of local rice consumption than the younger generation. Traditionally, local rice has been produced and consumed in Ghana for many years compared with imported/foreign rice. This makes majority of older people highly accustomed to the taste and other attributes of local rice. On the other hand, younger people are more likely to develop higher taste and preference for imported/foreign rice since they might probably have consumed it away from home since their childhood. According to Ehiakpor et al. (2017), because of the high respect/prestige associated with imported rice consumption in most parts of Ghana, majority of youth prefer imported rice to local rice. This result is in agreement with Ehiakpor et al. (2017) who reported that age has a positive relationship with a household’s preference for local rice. Nevertheless, this result is in contrast with Danso-Abbeam et al. (2014) who reported that the consumption of local rice has an indirect association with age.

The multinomial probit regression further revealed that, household income is a significant factor which negatively influences the consumption of local rice but positively influences imported/foreign rice consumption. This means that the consumption of local rice decreases with income while the consumption of imported/foreign rice increases with income. From the fractional probit regression, income is identified as a significant and negative factor influencing the proportion of local rice in household total rice consumption. This observation suggests that the proportion of local rice in the total rice consumed by a household reduces with a percentage rise in its income. Thus, high-income households are more likely to consume a higher proportion of imported/foreign rice while low-income households are more likely to consume a higher proportion of local rice. Unlike imported/foreign rice, local rice mostly exhibits poor value addition and attributes in terms of packaging, cleanliness (removal of foreign materials) and improvement in aroma. This phenomenon makes local rice less expensive than imported/foreign rice. Thus, low-income households are better able to afford local rather than imported rice. This finding agrees with Tomlins et al. (2005) who found that income has a positive association with consumers’ preference for imported rice. Similarly, Ehiakpor et al. (2017) revealed that income negatively influences a household’s preference for local rice.

Where consumer buys rice has been proven by the multinomial probit regression to be a significant factor that negatively influences local rice consumption but is positively influencing the consumption of imported rice (Table 5). The results from the multinomial probit regression has established that purchasing rice in supermarkets has a higher tendency to reduce the consumption of local rice and enhance the consumption of imported/foreign rice. From the fractional probit regression, where consumer buys rice has been shown as a significant factor that negatively affects the proportion of local rice in household total rice consumption. This infers that consumers who purchase rice in supermarkets have higher likelihood of reducing the proportion of local rice in their total rice consumption. It could, therefore, be deduced that households which purchase rice from open markets have a higher probability of consuming local rice than those who purchase from supermarkets. Most supermarkets in Ghana sell more imported/foreign food products (including rice) than local products. On the other hand, the sale of local food products (like rice) is rifer on open markets than supermarkets. In Ghana, shopping of foodstuffs in supermarkets is commonly practiced among high-income households rather than low-income households. Thus, consumers who buy foodstuffs in open markets are more likely to consume more local rice than their counterparts who buy from supermarkets.

Consumption of local and imported rice may depend on whether or not a relative of a household grows rice. The multinomial probit regression revealed a significant and positive relationship between consumers whose relative grows rice and consumption of local rice. The relationship turns out to be negative for the consumption of imported rice. It can be inferred that having a relative who grows rice increases the consumption of local rice and reduces the consumption of imported/foreign rice. From the fractional probit regression, the proportion of local rice in household total rice consumption was significantly and positively influenced by having a relative who grows rice. Having a relative who grows rice may induce local rice consumption and increase the proportion of local rice in the total rice consumed by a household. Therefore, households whose relatives grow rice have a higher probability of consuming local rice than those who do not. Rice production in Ghana is characterized by the cultivation of local varieties. Farmers could present to their relatives in urban areas as gifts to induce local rice consumption among such households.

Proportion of cooked rice eaten away from home, as revealed in the multinomial probit regression estimates in Table 5, is a significant and negative factor influencing local rice consumption. This means that the consumption of local rice reduces with proportion of cooked rice eaten away from home. The fractional probit regression estimates show a significant and negative relationship between local rice consumption and the proportion of cooked rice eaten away from home. This implies that the proportion of local rice in the total rice consumed by a household reduces with proportion of cooked rice eaten away from home. Thus, households whose eating pattern is characterized by eating higher proportions of cooked rice away from home have a lower probability of consuming local rice. This observation emanate from the fact that majority of food vendors in Ghana sell cooked imported/foreign rice rather than local rice.

Table 5 further shows factors that influence local rice consumption in urban Ghana. The consideration for rice popularity, availability and certification by regulatory bodies like FDA significantly and positively influence the consumption of imported/foreign rice, as indicated by the multinomial probit regression estimates. Households that considered rice popularity, availability and certification by an FDA as major attributes of rice increased the consumption of imported rice. The fractional probit regression estimates show that each of these three factors reduces the proportion of local rice in total quantity of rice consumed in a household. It could be established from this trend that consumers who consider rice popularity, availability and certification as major factors have higher probability of consuming imported/foreign rice than those who do not consider these factors. Most consumers prefer rice that is highly available and consistent in supply on the market. This makes such rice brands easily accessible and reliable in supply for consumers. There is high demand for food safety due to increasing concerns about consumer health (Amfo & Ali, 2021). Thus, health conscious consumers prefer to consume rice certified by FDA of Ghana. According to Ehiakpor et al. (2017), product availability directly influences consumers’ choice of foreign products. This infers that consumers have higher preference for rice brands that are easily available and accessible on the market.

Residential status, defined as being a native of the study area or a migrant, was estimated in the multinomial probit regression (Table 5). It was a significant factor that positively influence the consumption of imported rice. The regression estimates infer that natives of the study area are likely to increase the consumption of foreign rice. This infers that being a native of the study area increases the consumption of imported/foreign rice. Thus, the consumption of local rice is likely to be prevalent among migrants while that of imported/foreign rice is more prevalent among natives. Usually, migrants are low-income and more deprived than natives/indigenes (Amfo et al., 2022). This is because majority of migrants who travel from other parts of Ghana to the study area (Kumasi Metropolis) in search of better means of livelihood are usually low-income. Such low-income migrants could better afford local rice, especially those with low value-addition and are usually cheaper than imported/foreign rice. Moreover, some people (especially those from northern Ghana) migrate from farming communities/households on temporary basis to prevent them from being redundant during the off/dry-season. Therefore, they are likely to have relatives who cultivate local rice. Such relatives could supply migrants with local rice, as remittance, for household consumption.

5. Conclusions and policy recommendations

One-fourth of urban folks in Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana consume only local rice while half consume only imported/foreign rice, implying that half of urban folks in Ghana do not eat locally cultivated rice. Therefore, compared with imported/foreign rice, there is low level of local rice consumption in urban Ghana. Furthermore, compared with natives, a higher proportion of migrants consume only local rice. Conversely, a higher proportion of natives consume only imported/foreign rice than migrants. Hence, local rice consumption is higher among migrants than natives/indigenes. On average, local rice forms 38% of rice consumed by households in urban Ghana. Also, local rice constituted a higher proportion of rice consumed by migrant households than native households. Therefore, internal migration into urban Ghana matters in local rice consumption. Attributes considered in choosing preferred rice (local or imported/foreign) are aroma, availability, cleanliness, healthiness, stickiness, packaging, appearance, price, standard of measurement, quantity obtained after cooking, taste, and time taken to cook. Being a migrant, female, older or low income, purchasing of rice on open markets, having a relative who grows rice, eating lower proportion of cooked rice away from home, as well as consideration of rice popularity, FDA certification and availability are factors that directly influence local rice consumption in urban Ghana.

To improve local rice consumption in urban Ghana, producers should improve attributes such as aroma, cleanliness (removal of foreign materials), packaging, and standards of measurement since these are highly considered by consumers in choosing preferred rice. Also, the availability of local rice should be enhanced so that consumers can easily access it on the market. Like imported/foreign rice, local rice should be made available on supermarkets. Local rice should be certified by FDA and/or other regulatory agencies since certification is a major factor considered by health conscious consumers in purchasing rice. Improvement in local rice attributes requires extra cost which would be borne by the consumers. Therefore, further studies should be conducted on consumers’ WTP for improved local rice attributes by migrants and natives in urban Ghana. It is further recommended that future studies on local and imported rice consumption should include rice characteristics/attributes as explanatory variables. The attributes could include aroma, availability, cleanliness, healthiness, stickiness, packaging, appearance, price, standard of measurement, quantity obtained after cooking, taste, and time taken to cook. That would lend additional understanding to why consumers prefer either type of rice (local or imported).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This study received no external funding.