Evaluating the preparation, nutritional, physical, and microbial quality of ‘chuko’: a ready-to-eat barley-based snack from Hetosa district, Arsi zone, Ethiopia

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the traditional preparation practices and the proximate, physical, and microbial quality of chuko collected from the Hetosa district in the Arsi zone of Ethiopia. Chuko is a traditional snack food prepared from roasted barley flour, spice powders, and traditional ghees. In this study, 30 respondents from the Hetosa district were selected to assess the chuko preparation practices and cultural aspects of the chuko. Furthermore, 25 chuko samples were collected to determine physicochemical, proximate, and microbial quality. From the survey results, it is understood that chuko was mainly prepared for household consumption on special occasions, such as weddings, food for postnatal women, food in blessing ceremonies, food on holidays, and visiting relatives. The average moisture and ash contents of the collected chuko samples were observed as 2.52 ± 0.64% and 1.77 ± 68%, respectively. The mean fat, protein, fiber, and carbohydrate contents of the collected chuko samples were as 42.02 ± 9.89%, 5.82 ± 0.88%, 1.89 ± 0.72% & 45.98 ± 8.33%, respectively. The mean pH, water activity, and textural profile of the collected chuko were 5.11 ± 0.21, 0.22 ± 0.05 N, respectively. The total aerobic plate counts of the chuko samples ranged from 1.15 × 10³ to 1.26 × 10⁵ cfu/g, and the average coliform and yeast growth were 1.70 × 10² cfu/g and 4.90 × 10¹ cfu/g, respectively. This study concluded that Chuko preparation and consumption were traditionally performed. Chuko is a traditional low-moisture, high-fat, high-energy food product with a shelf life of one year. Furthermore, the value addition of Chuko, product diversification, and promotion of indigenous knowledge are recommended for future work.

Keywords:

• Barley
• energy-dense food
• ghee
• microbial quality
• roasted barley
• snack food
• traditional food

Reviewing Editor:

• M. Luisa Escudero-Gilete, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain

Subjects:

• Food Chemistry
• Food Analysis
• Food Microbiology
• Food Manufacturing and Related Industries
• Food and Beverage Management

1. Introduction

The origins of traditional foods and beverages in Ethiopia can be traced back to the early stages of crop domestication and agricultural advancement. These culinary traditions play an important role in various celebrations and special events, including holidays, festivals, social gatherings, funerals, visits from guests, and other local and national occasions (Anteneh et al., 2011; Hall & Sharples, 2008). Certain regional traditional foods are recognized as authentic and valued not only within Ethiopia but also beyond its borders. This diversified traditional food in the Amhara region is chicken stew (Doro Wot), roasted barley flour supplemented with ghee and spices (chuko), broken barley (Kinche), unfermented thin bread mixed with ghee (chachabsa) from the Oromia region, barely dough balls (Tihlo), baked bread (Hambasha) from the Tigray region, butter-sautéed raw or cooked ground beef (Kitfo), and pancakes from false banana starch (Kocho) from the Gurage region. Although their origin is confined to a specific location, these traditional foods are well-accepted and appreciated throughout Ethiopia. However, these traditional foods have received limited scientific attention in terms of their characterization and further research and development (Kifleyesus, 2004).

Traditional foods are integral to the Ethiopian staple diet, and injera is the most widely consumed traditional food (Satheesh & Fanta, 2018). Injera (fermented unleavened flat bread) is usually prepared by Teff and attracts consumers throughout the world because of its excellent nutritional properties and gluten-free nature. However, due to the higher price and demand for teff grain in national and international markets, other grains such as sorghum, maize, barley, wheat, and finger millet have been reported to be used occasionally (Satheesh & Fanta, 2020). Among cereal crops, barley is very important in the preparation of different traditional foods in Ethiopia, such as Injera, Kita (unleavened flat bread), Dabo (traditional fermented leavened bread), Kolo (roasted grains), Genfo (Porridge), Beso (ready-to-mix flour mix), Chuko (ready-to-eat snack with butter fat), Shamet (local beverage), Keribo (nonalcoholic beverage from roasted barley), Tihlo (Porridge), Kinche (cooked broken barely), and Shorba (cooked broken barely). Researchers have reported the use of barley in the preparation of various Ethiopian traditional foods (Anberbir et al., 2023; Bekele et al., 2005; Eticha et al., 2009; Fanta & Neela, 2019; Mohammed et al., 2016; Tadesse et al., 2020).

Chuko is a delicious traditional snack food made with roasted barley powder as the main ingredient (Alganesh & Yetenayet, 2017). The word chuko was taken from Afaan Oromoo (the local language used in Ethiopia), ‘Cuukkoo’ means a traditional cake. chuko is usually preferred as part of the daily diet and is prepared for special events or considered the best food for postnatal women. In addition, chuko is prepared for consumption during holidays and festivals. This traditional food also prefers to carry on travel (long journeys), such as traveling to join universities and military campaigns, as it can be stored for around a year without spoilage (Mohammed et al., 2016).

The global recognition of barley as a versatile food source is deeply rooted in history. Although barley is a significant dietary staple in certain regions (Qi et al., 2006), it is perceived to be relatively underutilized in the realm of processed human foods (Ullrich, 2011). Barley is a major cereal crop that is largely produced in the central and southern mid- and high-altitude regions of Ethiopia. It is the fifth most important cereal crop after teff, maize, wheat, and sorghum (Central statistical agency (CSA) [Ethiopia] and ICF, 2016).

Traditionally, barley has been one of the main sources of energy (Yosef et al., 2011) as a staple diet. Barley is the main cereal grain for the development of functional foods and contains β-glucan (a soluble fiber) and antioxidants, vitamins (A and E, niacin and folate), minerals (Ca, Mg, P, and K), and phytonutrients (phenolics and lignans). Scientific studies have shown that barley consumption can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, cholesterol absorption, diabetes, and certain cancers (Vasan et al., 2014). Barley products are rich in non-digestible carbohydrates (dietary fiber and resistant starch), which facilitate glycemic regulation through fermentation by gut microorganisms (Baik & Ullrich, 2008). Scientific studies have established that foods with soluble dietary fiber, such as potatoes, barely have a positive effect on lowering serum cholesterol levels, postprandial blood glucose, and insulin responses (Jenkins et al., 2000).

Ghee is primarily used for cooking, frying, dressing, and topping various foods. It is also used to prepare various snacks and sweets, which are often mixed with vegetables, cereals, fruits, and nuts. Ghee is considered a sacred product in some parts of the world and is used in religious rites (Kumar et al., 2018). Ghee is the most important ingredient in food, is a rich source of dietary energy, and acts as a vehicle for fat-soluble vitamins (Jariwala, 2014). In Ethiopia, traditional ghee is usually used as a flavor and condiment for different types of pulse stews (lentils, beans, and peas), chicken and meat stews, and sauces. The use of ghee in food preparation is typically indicative of financially affluent households (Alganesh & Yetenayet, 2017).

However, to our knowledge, scientific literature on indigenous practices, nutritional composition, microbiological load, safety and quality considerations, and the socioeconomic importance of chuko is limited. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate traditional preparation practices (ingredients and chuko preparation) and proximate, physical, and microbial quality evaluation of chuko samples collected from the Hetosa District of the Arsi Zone, Ethiopia.

2. Materials and methods

This study was conducted in two phases. First, in the initial phase data on the preparation, consumption pattern, and storage characteristics of chuko were collected. In the later phase, chuko samples were collected from different households, and their proximate composition and physical and microbiological properties were evaluated. The approach used in this study is described in the subsequent sections. Ethical approval was obtained from the internal ethical board of Bahir Dar Institute of Technology to conduct this study. Further, written informed consent for publication of the study participant’s details was obtained from the study participant.

2.1. Selection of the study location and determination of the sample number

The Hetosa District of the Arsi Zone was selected for data collection on chuko preparation practices. This district is famous for chuko preparations. Of 27 (23 rural and 4 semi-urban) kebeles (administrative zones), 4 kebeles (administrative zones) were selected, namely ‘Dayya ‘aa Dabbasoo, Haxxee Handoodee, Shaaqii Shararaa and Seeroo Ankatoo’ from rural and one (1) kebele ‘Itayyaa-02’ from semi-urban by a simple random sampling method. Out of the five selected kebeles, six (6) households were purposively selected from each kebele and contacted for data collection. The respondents were selected based on their experience in chuko preparation.

2.2. Collection of qualitative data

The semi-structured questionnaire was prepared in English and translated into the local language. Additionally, indigenous preparation practices, consumption patterns, quality, and storage characteristics of chuko were assessed. During the survey, personal observations were made regarding the preparation practices and ingredients used for chuko preparation, and relevant information was recorded. To validate the results, an interview was conducted with older female cultural leaders (Haadha Siinqee) about the indigenous practices of chuko.

2.3. Chuko sample collection

Twenty-five traditionally prepared chuko samples were collected from selected households. These samples were collected from 25 of the 30 respondents (in some houses, samples were not available). In addition, the samples were packed in polyethylene bags and labeled individually. All the collected samples were packed in an airtight container and immediately transported at room temperature to the Food Processing and Analysis Laboratory of Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. Further, samples were stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C until all laboratory analyses were performed.

2.4. Determination of the quality of chuko sample

The following proximate, physical, and microbial quality parameters were analyzed.

2.4.1. Determination of the proximate composition

The proximate composition of the collected chuko samples was analyzed using the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) methods (AOAC, 1990). Crude protein content was determined using the Kjeldahl method 979.09. Crude fat was determined by the Soxhlet extraction method (Method number 4.5.01) using diethyl ether as the solvent. The crude fiber content was determined using the non-enzymatic digestion method (Method 962.09). Moisture content was determined using an air-drying oven (925.09). The ash content was determined by incineration (550 °C) of samples in a muffle furnace (Method 923.03). The total carbohydrate content was obtained by difference (Ahmed et al., 2018), the gross energy was calculated using Atwater’s calorie conversion factors: 4 kcal/g for protein, 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates, and 9 kcal/g for fat (Southgate and Durnin 1970).

2.4.2. Determination of texture

The textural properties of the chuko samples were analyzed using a texture profile analysis (TPA) texturometer (Kohyama K, 2020).

2.4.3. Determination of physicochemical properties

Water activity (a_w) was measured using a dew point water activity meter (AQUA LAB 4TE), following the manufacturer’s instructions (Yusufe et al., 2017). The pH values were determined after homogenizing the sample (10 g) in 90 ml of distilled water. The pH meter was initially calibrated using buffer solutions (pH 4.0, pH 7.0) after homogenized samples were used to determine pH (Demes et al., 2020).

2.4.4. Determination of microbiological load

Total yeast and mold counts, aerobic plate counts, and coliform counts were determined using the pour plate technique. Ten grams of chuko samples were homogenized in 90 ml of peptone water using a vortex mixer. Furthermore, a subsequent serial dilution was performed, and appropriate dilutions were used for microbial determination. For the total aerobic plate count, plate count agar (PCA) medium was used. In the case of coliform count, Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA) was used, and plates were incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Furthermore, typical purplish-red colonies were considered positive for coliforms. For yeast and mold counts, Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium was used and incubated at 25 °C for 3–5 days. The number of colonies was counted and expressed as CFU (Tiruneh et al., 2021).

2.5. Statistical analysis

Data from the survey responses were interpreted as descriptive statistics such as percentages and frequency. The data of the proximate and selected physical properties were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Minitab 19 statistical software, and the microbiological data were managed using Microsoft Excel 2007 (Montgomery, 2017).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Indigenous chuko preparation practices – the sociodemographic profile

Table 1 shows the age and educational background of the study participants. About 13 (43.33%) respondents were older than 50 years, 11 (36.67%) were between 41 and 50 years of age, 4 (13.33%) were between 31 and 40 years of age, and 2 (6.67%) were less than 30 years of age. Based on these data, approximately 80% of the participants were older than 41 years.

Table 1. Sociodemographic information of the age and educational background of the respondents.

Age	Respondent number (N = 30)	Percent (%)
<30 years	2	6.67
31–40 years	4	13.33
41–50 years	11	36.67
>50 years	13	43.33
Educational background	Respondent number (N = 30)	Percent (%)
No education	10	33.33
Informally educated	13	43.33
Elementary school completed	2	6.67
Secondary school completed	4	13.33
Diploma	1	3.33

In the traditional preparation of chuko, senior female family members (usually mothers) assume responsibility. However, young females practiced chuko preparation under the guidance of their mothers, and they learned all the cultural values and took all responsibilities after marriage; this is the same in all traditional food preparations (Messenbet et al., 2022). The respondents had 5–45 years of experience in chuko preparation. The educational background of the respondents was 43.33% informally educated, and 33.33% did not have any education.

3.2. Indigenous practices and quality parameters of the chuko

As shown in Table 2, chuko are mainly prepared for household consumption. The study showed that 96.67% (n = 29) of the total respondents prepared chuko for household consumption, and only 3.33% of the respondents prepared chuko for both sales and household consumption. This indicates that chuko preparation for sales/commercial purposes is limited. In addition, the respondents mentioned that the chuko was prepared for special occasions, such as weddings, food for postnatal mothers, ceremonies (student graduation, new house inauguration), holidays, and visiting guests and relatives. Chuko plays a special role in collecting funds for various events. For instance, chuko is used for auctions and to generate money for community development projects. In addition, it is also prepared for long-distance travelers moving away from family, such as places abroad and universities for education.

Table 2. Traditional chuko practices in the community.

Intended use	Respondent number (N = 30)	Percent (%)
Household consumption	29	96.67
Sale	0	0.00
Both	1	3.33
Perception	Respondent number	Percent (%)
Food	28	93.33
Medicinal	0	0.00
Both	2	6.67
N =	30	100

In the Gadaa system (Oromo indigenous democratic sociopolitical system) of the Oromo ethnic group, the Gadaa power transfer ceremony (Baallii Dabarsa), chuko has been presented for the ‘Foollee’ (At the age of 16–24, the boys are known as foollee, they act as a social agent to maintain peace and security in society) along with ‘Farsoo/Tella’ (traditional fermented drink), ‘Dhodhoo bboo’ (Roasted barley rinsed with ghee) and Bixxillee (a small fermented baked bread in circular shape). The Foollee leader receives all gifts and offers blessings to the members (‘Waan Seeraa Guutan’, which means that all requirements are fulfilled) and shares gifts with other members (Hinew, 2012).

In the case of intended use and cultural perception in the community; chuko was perceived in the community as a food related to respect, which means presented for the special honor of guests or during special events. About 6.67% of the respondents perceived chuko as having both food and medicinal value. The respondents believed that the consumption of chuko strengthened bones and provided energy. This was attributed to the ingredients used in the preparation of the chuko. For example, barley is a good source of calcium and is beneficial to the bones. Similarly, the higher energy was attributed to the utilization of ghee. In response to cultural perceptions, chuko has been considered a food presented with respect (‘Cuukkoon Nyaata Kabajaaf Dhiyaatu’).

3.3. Chuko serving and consumption patterns

Traditional practices and rituals are observed throughout the processing of chuko and serving. Similarly, a spoon (Fal’aana), traditionally made from a cow or an oxen horn, is used to consume chuko. One serving of fal’aana of chuko approximately weighs 80–100 g. Similarly, the quantity consumed and serving size of chuko depend on the availability and number of people to be served. From this study, it was determined that an adult consumes 100–250 g (1–4 Fal’aana) of chuko. In the study population, 45.6% of the respondents usually served or often consumed 150 g (2 fal’aana) of chuko, and 45.6% of the respondents consumed approximately 200 g (3 fal’aana). However, respondents believe that 150–200 g of chuko is recommended for an adult person. Most respondents expressed that serving the chuko using the famous proverb ‘chuko is eaten just to wonder/admire, not to fill the stomach’ (‘Dhangaa Gurra Nyaatu! Malee Garaaf Hin Nyaatan).

3.4. Chuko storage, quality, and related issues

Most of the respondents (39.6%) stored chuko for 12 months (maximum duration). Usually, the prepared chuko for home consumption is not necessarily stored for long durations, unless it is intended for other special events. In traditional practices, respondents commonly consume chuko with milk. In some cases, the respondents also consumed chuko with soft drinks or alcoholic drinks (Daadhii/Mead or Tella/Farsoo) in the study area. The storage stability of chuko depends on the preprocessing methods of the ingredients used and the quality, type, and quantity of the ingredients used in the preparation (Sandulachi, 2012). It has been reported that ghee is a stable product and is attributed to its low moisture content, high phospholipid content, free amino acids, low acidity, and the presence of natural antioxidants (Achaya, 1997; Kumar et al., 2018).

Respondents revealed that the quality of the chuko was subjectively determined. Indigenous, traditional knowledge, and experience of preparation are important attributes that determine the quality of chuko (Kuhnlein, 2000). Respondents mentioned that women with the best chuko preparation skills are appreciated in the local community. Respondents revealed that good-quality chuko should have a pleasant flavor, taste should not be salty or excessively sweet, and visual appearance should be compact or firmly packed. This type of subjective quality ranking varies and may mislead consumers (Cayot, 2007; 2007; Pepe et al., 2011). However, no scientific methods or standards are available for the sensory quality analysis of products determined in the studied community.

Respondents strongly believed that the quality of chuko deteriorated when it was exposed to the external environment (Jaworska et al., 2014). Chuko was stored in a tightly closed container at room temperature. According to the respondents, chuko may be subjected to spoilage when moisture is absorbed or in contact with water or moisture. At the location of the study, respondents believed that a rancid odor is an indication of spoilage. The respondents also considered that exposure of the chuko to air and high heat could lead to spoilage, and other respondents observed loss of appearance and textural integration in the case of spoilage (Martínez & Carballo 2021).

The respondents reported challenges in the preparation and consumption of chuko. Almost all survey participants mentioned the growing market price of ghee; hence, chuko consumption was limited to special occasions instead of regular consumption (Krause et al., 2007). Mohammed et al. (2016) mentioned that chuko is easy to prepare in a short time; however, the respondents mentioned that when the prepared ghee and basso flour (barley flour) were not readily available, chuko preparation took considerable time. However, the preparation of lightly roasted barley into basso powder requires considerable effort and time.

3.5. Discussion with senior female cultural leaders (Haadha Siinqee)

In a discussion with Haadha Siinqee (Figure 1), they mentioned that the chuko was stored for one year without spoilage. The same idea was also expressed by survey respondents, who mentioned that the average storage time for chuko is about one year. However, the respondents and the female culture leaders agreed that the shelf life of chuko based directly on the quality of ghee, barley, and good hygiene practices. The cultural leaders also mentioned that the ghee used in chuko preparation should be fresh with good sensory attributes. They also mentioned that the ‘Arusoo’ barley variety is the most suitable for chuko preparation, but recently other varieties were also used for the preparation of chuko. The respondents revealed that the quality of the ingredients (barley and butter) and their best practices in preparing and hygienic practices determine the final quality of the chuko. Culture leaders said that chuko is also known by different names like ‘Dhangaa’, ‘Micciirraa’ and ‘Shakaka’ in different parts of the region and describe that chuko consumption provides energy and power, particularly for sportspeople.

Figure 1. Discussion on indigenous chuko practices with cultural leaders (Haadha Siinqee). (A) Culture leaders explain the chuko preparation; (B) Prepared chuko presented traditionally; (C) Tasting the chuko by the first author; (D) Checking the sensory properties of the chuko by the first author.

3.6. Chuko preparation practices

3.6.1. Preparation of basso flour

Best quality, healthy, and uniform size, barely used for chuko preparation. The processing steps followed by most households are summarized in Figures 2–4. The process started with manual cleaning, sorting, and further soaking in hot water for 20–25 min. Shade drying was performed by placing it in a container overnight. Furthermore, the roasted barley (medium) and hulls were removed by slight pounding and sifting. Then barely was ground alone or preferably along with other ingredients like; salt, kororima (Aframomum corrorima) ‘Kusaayee/Kosarata (Ocimum hardiense)’ the resulting flour is known as ‘basso’ flour. Prepared basso flour was used for chuko preparation.

Figure 2. Process of basso preparation for chuko (personal observation).

Figure 3. Process flow of ghee preparation for chuko (personal observation).

Figure 4. Chuko preparation process (personal observation). (A) clarified butter and basso powder ready for chuko making, (B) start adding ghee to basso and mix, (C) check the level of the structure by hand, (D) chuko ready to be served or packed, (E) Pressed chuko as the cake.

3.6.2. Ghee preparation for chuko

Ghee is another important component of chuko. The melting of butter to produce ghee is a very important process for the development of better sensory properties of ghee. The Kororima (Aframomum corrorima) and Kusaayee/Kosorata (Ocimum hardiense) spices were added to the butter clarification process (Figure 3). However, some respondents added Bishops’ weed (Aegopodium podagraria), black cumin (Elwendia persica), fenugreek, and oregano in addition to common species. Furthermore, the amount of spice added depends on traditional practice (Teshome et al., 2019).

The heating process plays an important role in the quality attributes of the ghee, and heat should be applied slowly to melt and boil butter; this heating process can take approximately 50 min. This controlled heating process helps to achieve the required color and flavor of the produced ghee. According to Kuyu and Bereka (2020), the boiling time-temperature combination is 90–100 °C for 50–60 min used in the traditional ghee preparation. In the study area, the management of time and temperature during traditional ghee preparation depends on personal judgment and temperature regulations. The required level was determined by visual observation or by sensing the imparting flavor.

3.6.3. Chuko preparation

Good quality chuko preparation started with high-quality raw materials and the best hygienic preparation practice. Basso flour and ghee are the two main ingredients used in chuko preparation. Most households commonly prepare basso flour with kororima and Kusaayee/Kosarata (Ocimum hardiense), additional spices are not necessarily required in the main preparation. Some respondents also reported that they added red chilli powder to the required flavor and color. In rare cases, ‘Abasuuda Adii’ (bishop’s weed), ‘Abasuuda Gurraacha’ (black cumin) were also used in the preparation. Each spice must be prepared independently in powder and added during chuko preparation process or proportionally prepared with the main ingredients, usually with basso flour; similar preparation trends were reported by Mohammed et al. (2016).

During the preparation of chuko, small amounts of ‘Takii/Dabbo kolo’- (small fry made with wheat flour) or ‘Akaayii Garbuu’ (roasted barley grain) can be added. All ingredients were thoroughly mixed with ghee until the required level was attained. The quantity and type of ingredients needed to prepare chuko varies widely among households. Consequently, most of the respondents for one kilogram (1 kg) of basso flour, and about 0.5–0.75 kg of ghee was used on average. In some cases, 15–20 grams (3–4 teaspoons) per kilogram of spices are added to the basso. The preparation of chuko is shown in Figure 4.

3.7. Proximate composition of chuko

In this study, it was observed that the fat, moisture, carbohydrate, and energy values of the chuko samples were significantly (p < 0.05) different among the collected samples (Table 3). Mean differences observed among samples collected from different kebeles. However, no significant differences were observed between Hate Handode and Shaki Sharara kebeles samples in the moisture content, carbohydrate content, and energy values of the 2.02±0.975, kebeles. The practice of household preparation and the variation in the proportion of ingredients used, especially the amount of ghee used, significantly affected the approximate composition.

Table 3. Proximate composition and physical properties of collected chuko samples from households.

Kebeles	Proximate composition							Physical properties
	Moisture (%)	Ash (%)	Fat (%)	Protein (%)	Fiber (%)	COH (%)	Energy (kcal/100g)	pH	Water activity (aw)	Texture-forces (N)
DD	3.035 ± 0.538^ab	1.562 ± 0.486^a	51.04 ± 12.43^a	5.785 ± 0.402^a	2.136 ± 0.747^a	36.45 ± 10.73^c	628.2 ± 67.8^a	4.959 ± 0.197^b	0.262 ± 0.025^a	2.200 ± 1.274^a
SA	2.205 ± 0.382^bc	1.921 ± 1.211^a	49.91 ± 9.14^ab	5.655 ± 0.442^a	0.950 ± 0.373^b	39.368 ± 7.74^bc	629.2 ± 50.6^a	5.103 ± 0.182^ab	0.190 ± 0.058^b	1.879 ± 0.628^a
IT	3.132 ± 0.726^a	1.527 ± 0.292^a	33.46 ± 1.99^c	5.446 ± 0.920^a	2.129 ± 0.568^a	54.303 ± 1.765^a	540.16 ± 9.75^b	5.161 ± 0.253^ab	0.245 ± 0.001^ab	2.421 ± 1.041^a
HH	2.111 ± 0.794^c	2.115 ± 0.540^a	37.34 ± 13.37^bc	6.267 ± 1.157^a	2.176 ± 0.908^a	49.99 ± 10.70^ab	561.1 ± 73.8^ab	5.114 ± 0.120^ab	0.218 ± 0.065^ab	1.747 ± 0.877^a
SS	2.124 ± 0.664^c	1.713 ± 0.456^a	38.34 ± 8.31^abc	5.948 ± 1.145^a	2.073 ± 0.879^a	49.80 ± 7.35^ab	568.0 ± 42.4^ab	5.235 ± 0.260^a	0.201 ± 0.068^ab	1.870 ± 0.944^a
Overall mean (Mean ± SD)	2.52 ± 0.637	1.77 ± 0.676	42.02 ± 9.895	5.82 ± 0.877	1.89 ± 0.723	45.98 ± 8.328	585.35 ± 53.867	5.11 ± 0.208	0.22 ± 0.051	2.02 ± 0.975

Means that do not share the same letters are significantly different in a row. Note: Five Kebeles are (DD: Daya’a Dabaso, SA: Sero Ankato, IT: Itaya-02, HH: Hate Handode, SS: Shaki Sharara), COH: carbohydrate. The approximate values corresponding to each kebele were the mean results of five samples from five households, and the average of 25 samples (mean ± SD) was calculated.

The ash and protein content of the collected chuko samples were not significantly different (p > 0.05). The fiber content of the sample means from Sero Ankato kebele showed a significant difference from those of the other four kebeles. A mean moisture content of 2.52 ± 0.64% and ash content of 1.77 ± 0.676% were observed for all collected chuko samples. The mean fat, protein, fiber, and carbohydrate contents of the collected (25) chuko samples are 42.02 ± 9.89%, 5.82 ± 0.88%, 1.89 ± 0.72% and 45.98 ± 8.33%, respectively. The mean energy content (25 samples) of the collected chuko samples is 585.35 ± 53.67 kcal/100 g. Proximate composition analysis revealed that chuko is a barley-based snack food with a higher fat content and energy value. The lower moisture content could be attributed to the utilization of the drying and roasting unit operations in the preparation of the ingredients and the use of dry raw material (dry spice powder) used in the preparation of chuko, ghee has a lower moisture content.

From proximate analysis, it was observed that chuko is rich in fat content and shares some common properties with high-fat products. The fat content of the chuko is in comparison to the dark cocoa (70–85% and 60–69%). White and wafer biscuits, chocolates were reported to be between 42.6% and 28.6%, and the fat composition of these products is as high as that chuko. For chocolates, a moisture content of 1.5%, fiber content of 5.5%, and ash content of 3.0% are the maximum limits (Camargo, 2015; Mihanović et al., 2010).

The energy density of the chuko samples was consistent with that of high-energy foods. Energy-rich foods are usually served in small portions. In contrast, other traditional Ethiopian foods, such as kocho and injera, have lower fat content and energy value. A serving of 150 g of chuko provides approximately 36% and 40% of the daily energy requirements of the male and female aged 19–59 years, respectively (Davies, 2021; FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004, 2005).

3.8. Water activity, texture, and pH of the collected chuko samples

The total mean water activity of 0.22 ± 0.05 and the pH of 5.11 ± 0.21 was determined in the collected chuko samples (mean of 25 samples collected) in the study (Table 3). This lower water activity could be attributed to the unit operations employed in the preparation of raw materials. Traditional ghee preparation involves the removal of moisture and reported a maximum water activity of 0.3% (Pena-serna & Restrepo-betancur, 2020) because of the boiling process employed above 100 °C for 50–60 min for clarification (Kuyu & Bereka, 2020). The unit operations employed in barley processing for basso preparation involve a series of activities by which roasting can remove a considerable amount of moisture. Foods with lower moisture content have lower water activity. The use of dried spices in preparation also contributed to a decrease in water activity. Therefore, lower moisture content and water activity make the product less susceptible to microbial growth.

In Table 3, the texture is expressed in terms of the force required to break down chuko. The total mean breaking force observed was 2.02 ± 0.97 N. The low cutting force is an indication that chuko is not hard and easy to break compared to milk cocoa butter chocolate (4.00 to 10.00 N) (Guinard & Mazzucchelli, 1999) and shelled sunflower seed caramel (2.048 to 42.030 N) (Gupta et al., 2007).

The water activity, pH, and texture profile analysis of the chuko samples were not significantly different (p > 0.05). However, in the Daya’a Dabaso and Shaki Sharara kebele samples, the pH values were significantly different from those of other kebeles. The mean water activities of the chuko samples collected from Daya’a Dabaso and Sero Ankatokebeles were significantly different. The texture of food depends on many factors, such as the level of ingredients and the processing methods employed in the processing of ingredients (Wójtowicz et al., 2013).

3.9. Microbiological load of chuko samples

Total aerobic plate counts ranged from 1.15 × 10³ to 1.26 × 10⁵cfu/g with an average of 2.35 × 10⁴ cfu/g. Coliform growth was not observed in eight (8/25) samples, and yeast and mold counts were observed in only five (5 out of 25 samples) samples (Table 4).

Table 4. Microbial (Total bacteria (cfu/g), Coliform (cfu/g), yeast and mold counts (cfu/g)) load of chuko samples collected from different kebleles.

Kebeles	Household (samples)	Total bacteria (cfu/g)	Coliform (cfu/g)	Yeast & Mold (cfu/g)
Daya’a Dabaso	1	3.95 × 10^3	ND	ND
	2	3.40 × 10^3	ND	ND
	3	3.50 × 10^4	3.55 × 10^2	ND
	4	4.70 × 10^4	ND	ND
	5	2.49 × 10^4	ND	ND
Sero Ankato	6	5.75 × 10^3	ND	ND
	7	3.85 × 10^4	ND	ND
	8	4.35 × 10^4	2.45 × 10^2	ND
	9	3.30 × 10^3	1.85 × 10^2	1.90 × 10^2
	10	2.30 × 10^3	1.50 × 10^2	ND
Itaya-02	11	5.05 × 10^4	2.00 × 10^2	ND
	12	6.45 × 10^4	2.20 × 10^2	ND
	13	3.10 × 10^3	3.30 × 10^2	ND
	14	1.26 × 10^5	ND	ND
	15	5.85 × 10^3	2.30 × 10^2	2.10 × 10^2
Hate Handode	16	1.65 × 10^3	2.70 × 10^2	ND
	17	6.65 × 10^3	1.90 × 10^2	ND
	18	1.15 × 10^3	ND	ND
	19	2.65 × 10^3	3.50 × 10^2	1.95 × 10^2
	20	1.80 × 10^3	3.05 × 10^2	ND
Shaki Sharara	21	1.95 × 10^3	2.40 × 10^2	3.95 × 10^2
	22	2.85 × 10^4	2.20 × 10^2	ND
	23	2.15 × 10^3	2.45 × 10^2	2.40 × 10^2
	24	3.60 × 10^4	1.95 × 10^2	ND
	25	4.70 × 10^4	3.30 × 10^2	ND
Total mean		2.35 × 10^4	1.70 × 10^2	4.90 × 10^1

ND: Not detected.

The average coliform count and yeast and mold counts were determined as 1.70 × 10² cfu/g, and 4.90 × 10¹ cfu/g, respectively. In the case of yeast and mold counts, chuko samples did not show mold growth in any of the collected samples. The proliferation of yeast in food is anticipated because of their ability to thrive under conditions characterized by low pH, reduced moisture levels, elevated salt concentrations, and refrigerated storage temperatures (Fleet, 1990; Viljoen & Greyling, 1995).

The recommended microbiological specification range of 10–1.00 × 10², and 1.00 × 10²–1.00 × 10³ cfu/g for coliform and yeast-mold counts, respectively. However, the chuko samples analyzed in this study showed microbial counts within the specified limits. The total aerobic bacterial counts of food products recommended in the range of 2.30 × 10³–1.00 × 10⁴ cfu/g and some of the chuko samples collected in this study showed the total aerobic bacterial count found higher compared to different food products (Afroz et al., 2013; Ahmed & Uddin, 2020; Alaouie et al., 2017; Gutiérrez, 2017; Okonko, 2012).

The higher total aerobic bacterial counts in the chuko samples could be attributed to the poor handling, storage, and pre- and post-processing handling practices employed. For instance, one of the major ingredients in the preparation chuko is ghee, it was prepared from butter, ghee made from different milk sources had considerable variations in the initial lipolytic and yeast-mold counts from non-detectable to 10⁵ cfu/g (Kirazci & Javidipour, 2008). Likewise, these could be microbiological sources, even though the product has low water activity and moisture content. Thus, the butter used for chuko preparation should not be rancid. Good hygiene practices should be maintained during the preparation of ghee to produce shelf-stable chuko (Marriott et al., 2018).

4. Conclusions

Chuko is usually served to guests during special events such as weddings, Gadaa power transitions, blessing ceremonies, and food for travelers, as a special gift to visit relatives and food for postnatal women. Chuko is a unique product, and its quality is significantly dependent on the quality of the raw materials (basso and ghee) and the hygienic practices employed in the preparation, handling, and storage. From the survey findings, chuko can be stored for up to one year without spoilage in airtight containers at room temperature.

Chuko is found to have low moisture and low water activity, which contribute to its shelf stability for a year. The moisture, fat, and carbohydrate compositions of the chuko samples were significantly (p < 0.05) different among the samples collected. Chuko is rich in fats and carbohydrates. The average fat content of the chuko samples collected from the five kebeles was in the range of 33.46 to 51.04%, which could be attributed to the amount of ghee used for the preparation. Chuko is a high-energy food, with an average of 585.35 ± 53.87 kcal/100 g (N = 25). Its high caloric value is an opportunity to be produced on a large scale, targeting as a military food (ready to eat), as a survival lifesaving food, and for tourists and travelers. Chuko has huge potential as a ready-to-eat commercial product that can be placed in cafeterias, hotels, supermarkets, outdoor events, and so on. The preparation of chuko is mainly carried out by women; hence, they can encourage small-scale businesses. To promote traditional indigenous foods such as chuko, policymakers must provide financial and technical support to upgrade to a commercial scale. Further investigations should focus on other locations for the evaluation of production practices, appropriate packaging materials, sensory evaluations, and optimization of product composition for better nutritional and sensory qualities.

Authors contributions

Conceptualization: T.N.B., M.W.T and N.S; methodology: T.N.B and M.W.T; software and validation: T.N.B and N.S; formal analysis: T.N.B and N.S; writing—original draft preparation: T.N.B; writing—review and editing: T.N.B., M.W.T and N.S; supervision: M.W.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The first author thanks the Food and Beverage Industry Research and Development Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for sponsoring the master’s study. In addition, all authors are grateful to the Hetosa District Cultural and Tourism Office for their kind support with data collection.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article or in its supplementary materials.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Tezazu Nigusie Beyene

Tezazu Nigusie Beyene is working as a researcher and lead executive officer at Manufacturing Industry Development Institute, Food and Beverage Industry Research and Development Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Mr. Tezazu was obtained master’s degree in food technology from faculty of Food and chemical engineering, Bahir Dar institute of Technology, Bahir Dar Ethiopia. He is interested in the Food product development, Food quality and safety, Beverage products, and quality evaluation of the ethnic and traditional food.

Mesfin Wogayehu Tenagashaw

Mesfin Wogayehu Tenagashaw is currently serving as Associate Professor at Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. He is completed Ph.D., in Food Science and Nutrition. Dr. Mesfin has offered number of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition courses for more than 15 years. Dr. Mesfin has a keen interest in infant and child nutrition, complementary feeding, micronutrients, fortification of food products, utilization of indigenous crops, food preservation and shelf-life studies, food and nutrition security, and community nutrition. Dr. Mesfin is actively involved in several food and nutrition issues in the country in collaboration with lots of governmental and non-governmental organizations and experts.

Neela Satheesh

Neela Satheesh is an Associate Professor in Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amity University, Punjab, India. He obtained his PhD degree from JNTU (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University) Anantapur, India. His research areas include Postharvest Management, Technology, Food Product Development and Food Quality and Safety, Processing and Handling of Perishables and Durables.