Investigating the non-work antecedents of workplace deviance

Abstract

Deviance in the workplace, which has a huge destructive and harmful impact on the organization, is of key concern to academicians and practitioners. Existing literature focuses on the work-related antecedents of workplace deviance. However, the non-work-related antecedents have received little attention. Hence, the present research attempts to understand, the non-work antecedents that aggravate deviant behavior among employees at a workplace. The Gioia qualitative research approach was used to understand, examine, analyze, and interpret the views of respondents. A semi-structured interviewing technique was adopted. The respondents were encouraged to share their own experiences, thoughts, and understanding regarding the phenomenon. A sample of 25 experienced respondents from public and private organisations in Pakistan were interviewed. The results indicate that commuting factors (road hindrances, conflict behaviors, traffic discipline, and over-speeding), social factors (family-work conflict, and disturbed social relations), and an individual’s lifestyle (attitude, physical inactivity, and sleep deprivation) are the contributing factors pertaining to the non-work antecedents of workplace deviance. The current study contributes to the literature by focusing on the non-work antecedents of workplace deviance.

Keywords:

• Workplace deviance
• traffic
• commuting
• family
• disturbed social relations
• sleep deprivation
• unhealthy lifestyle

1. Introduction

We are experiencing a surge in labor market competitiveness and rivalry, which means that firms must employ talented employees and apply varied ways to manage profitable organizations. Leading executives and managers must establish a conducive work environment for their staff and guarantee that they are not just technically competent, engaged, and devoted, but also ethical. Some important characteristics determine organizational effectiveness, competitiveness, and efficiency, according to theory and data. Employee behavior is one of the most significant aspects because positive behavior contributes to goal achievement while poor behavior can lead to organizational confusion and uproar (Appelbaum et al., 2007).

According to research, corporations incur financial losses and damage as a consequence of employee misconduct (Bolton et al., 2012; Paternoster et al., 2013). Each year, companies spend more than $150 billion to alleviate the stress of their employees (Fox et al., 2012). 33 to 75 percent of the labor force engages in sabotage, theft, bullying, absenteeism, withdrawal, and other similar actions (Coffin, 2003). Notably, these deviant behaviors all fit under the category of workplace deviance (Bhatti et al., 2016, 2015). Also prevalent in developing economies is workplace deviance (Baharom et al., 2017). Dawn, a prominent English-language newspaper in Pakistan, reported that a government official was found guilty of corruption amounting to $420 million. Corruption provides substantial obstacles to corporate success in Pakistan (Schwab, 2017). Although workplace deviance is not a new phenomena, globalization, greater competitiveness, and workplace stress have increased its prevalence (Lewaherilla, 2019). In the 1970s and 1980s, Daileyl and Kirk (1992) saw deviance as a phenomena concentrated on a specific conduct, such as theft. However, in the 21st century, deviance has expanded to encompass a variety of behaviors (Bennett & Robinson, 2003). This “dark side” behavior consists of voluntary behaviors that violate the norms of organizations, endanger the comfort of their members, or both (Bennett & Robinson, 2003).

Considering the aforementioned points, workplace deviance is a critical issue for all businesses (Bashir et al., 2012). Numerous studies have investigated the individual and organizational causes of workplace misbehavior (Berry et al., 2007; Golparvar & Nadi, 2011; Raza et al., 2017; Waseem, 2016). A meta-analysis has been undertaken (Berry et al., 2012, 2007; Dalal, 2005; Grijalva & Newman, 2015), but non-work antecedents of workplace deviance remain understudied. Globalization, technological development, and industrialisation have made the study of employees’ workplace behavior essential (Appelbaum et al., 2005). In the determination of workplace deviance, work-related factors are extensively explored (Appelbaum et al., 2007; Hickman, 2005; Shamsudin, 2003). Due to its increasing significance, workplace deviance has gained a great deal of attention (Yldz & Alpkan, 2015). Despite the fact that this is not a new worry, globalization, rising competition, and professional stress have increased the frequency of workplace deviance (Lewaherilla, 2019). Recent studies (Bennett et al. (2018), Shaheen et al. (2017), and Shahid and Ahmad (2016)) indicate that workplace deviance needs further exploration. Literature stresses the need for additional theoretical foundations and effects of workplace deviance to enrich the existing body of knowledge.

Experiences of an individual’s life spill from one domain to another (Bolger et al., 1989). Spillover of behaviour, either positive or negative, may occur from family to work or vice versa (McNall et al., 2010). The roles or expectations regarding family and work are not always aligned perfectly. In light of the same, an individual may face challenges that ultimately culminate in conflicts and trade-offs between these two worlds (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Hence, the purpose of the current study is to explore the non-work antecedents of workplace deviance.

2. Theoretical background

Bennett and Robinson (2000) affirmed workplace deviance as “an intentional behavior of employees that is harmful to the appropriate welfare of an organization or employees or both.” Classifications of deviant behavior were suggested by Mangione and Quinn (1975), who first introduced the notions of property and production deviance. Hollinger and Clark (1982) developed a framework that was based on property deviance and production deviance. Finally, Robinson and Bennett (1995) presented a typology of workplace deviance. It is composed of two dimensions: minor vs. serious, which defines the severity of the negative behavior; and interpersonal vs. organizational, which defines the target of that negative behavior, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Workplace deviance typology.

Source: Robinson and Bennett’s (1995)

Researchers have attributed several terms to negative employee behaviors, such as workplace deviance (Bennett & Robinson, 2003), counterproductive behavior (Giacalone & Greenberg, 1997), and destructive and retaliatory behaviors (Bennett & Robinson, 2003). (Golparvar et al., 2012). Workplace deviance consists of behaviors such as absenteeism, blaming coworkers, sexual harassment, immoral decisions, disobeying top authorities’ directions, purposefully slowing down work, arriving late, destruction, spreading rumors about others, and organization sabotage (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Understanding work-related attitudes has become a significant field of research (Yildiz et al., 2015). Griffin and Lopez (2005) noted that employees exhibit deviant behaviors that can be categorized as minor to severe levels of deviance.

Antecedents of workplace deviance can be classified into two clusters: individual and situational differences (Aquino et al., 2004; Colquitt et al., 2001; Nurmaya, 2012). Berry et al. (2012) compared themselves, and an informant (reporting other employees) reported workplace deviance. The results showed that self-reported patterns and magnitudes were greater than those reported by others. Raza et al. (2017) found that workload, work stress, and role conflict are the major antecedents of workplace deviance. Berry et al. (2007) conducted a meta-analysis study and found that both individual and organizational aspects can be considered as antecedents of workplace deviance. Continuing with the explanation of workplace deviance antecedents, Mount et al. (2006) stated that personality traits can predict workplace deviance. Several other researchers have also quantified that the demographics of the individual are also antecedents of workplace deviance (Gonzalez-Mulé et al., 2013; Hershcovis et al., 2007; Idiakheua et al., 2013b; Spector & Zhou, 2014). Kumi (2013) stated that men show more workplace deviance as compared to females. According to Golparvar and Nadi (2011), norms and values, as well as Islamic work ethics, have a negative relationship with workplace deviance. The managerial level also influences workplace deviance (Idiakheua et al., 2013a). Employees in public and private organizations differ in their willingness to engage in workplace deviance (Idiakheua et al., 2013a; Sudha & Khan, 2013). Further citations can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of workplace deviance antecedents

Authors	Nature of Study	Antecedents of study	Outcomes of study
Dalal (2005)	Meta-analysis	Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment Conscientiousness, Organizational Justice	All proposed antecedents have a negative association with workplace deviance.
Hershcovis et al. (2007)	Meta-analysis	Interpersonal Conflict, Distributive Injustice, Negative Affectivity, Procedural Injustice, Job dissatisfaction	The results show that organizational deviance has a positive relationship with job dissatisfaction. Further, an insignificant association between negative affectivity and procedural injustice was found in this meta-analysis.
Bennett and Robinson (2003)	Systematic Literature Review		Workplace deviance is a reaction to experience/s, reflections of one’s personality, and an adaptation to the social environment
Chernyak-Hai et al. (2019)	Quantitative Study	Gender and Marital Status; Married Men and Divorced Women	Results stated that married couples are more involved in deviant behavior as compared to divorced women.
Kluemper et al. (2015)	Quantitative	The Big Five and Self-Rated Workplace Deviance	Outcomes highlighted that conscientiousness and agreeableness are antecedents of workplace deviance.
O’Boyle et al. (2012)	Meta-analysis	Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy	Results show a positive and significant effect on workplace deviance.
Aleksic and Vukovic (2018)	Quantitative study	Personality Traits	Results displayed that the personality traits moderate deviant behavior; they vary from one employee to another employee.
Sudha and Khan (2013)	Quantitative study	Big Five and Motivational Traits	Outcomes show significant differences in public as well as the private sector employees concerning workplace deviance happenings.
Golparvar and Nadi (2011)	Quantitative study	Islamic Work Ethics, Organizational Loyalty (Mediator)	Results stated a negative relation with workplace deviance.
Mat and Naser (2012)	Quantitative study	Workplace Spirituality: Conditions for Community, Meaning at Work, Work Unit Community	Outcomes of the study show a negative relation of workplace deviance and meaning at work, as well as work unit community.
Radzali et al. (2013)	Conceptual study	Emotional Stability, Moderator Religiosity	Reported a negative relationship with workplace deviance.
Piquero and Moffitt (2012)	Quantitative study	Childhood Conduct Problems, Childhood Low Level of Self-Control, Income and Job Characteristics	None of the childhood factors matter in female deviance at the workplace but they do account for male workplace deviance.
Tuzun and Kalemci (2018)	Quantitative Study	Organizational Justice Appraisal Practices.	Results concluded that unequal performance appraisal practices lead to employee deviant behavior.
Mat and Naser (2012)	Quantitative Study	Workplace Spirituality, Meaning at Work, Work Unit Community	Results show a negative relation between meaning at work and work unit community.
Rahim et al. (2014)	Quantitative study	Spirituality	Outcomes show a negative relationship between spirituality and workplace deviance.
Bhatti (2015)	Quantitative research study	Islamic Piety (Taqwa)	Results display a negative relationship between Islamic piety and workplace deviance.
Oh et al. (2011)	Quantitative Study	HEXACO Personality Model	Outcomes show that extraversion strengthens the relationship amid (low) honesty-humility and workplace deviance.
OLASUPO and FAGBENRO (2018)	Quantitative Study	Workplace Discrimination, Perceived Competency	Results highlighted that workplace discrimination has a significant positive relationship with deviant workplace behavior.
O’Neill and Hastings (2011)	Quantitative Study	Big Five Factors, Risk Taking, Integrity	None of the Big Five traits are found to be strong antecedents of workplace deviance.
Golparvar and Nadi (2011)	Quantitative study	Islamic Work Ethics and Organizational Loyalty	Islamic work ethics are negatively connected to workplace deviance, whereas organizational loyalty mediates this direct relationship amid Islamic work ethics and workplace deviance.
Arshadi and Piriaei (2012)	Quantitative study	Interpersonal Trust, Trustworthiness, Trust propensity	Results showed a negative direct or an indirect influence of trustworthiness and trust propensity towards workplace deviance.
Chirasha and Mahapa (2012)	Qualitative study	Factors contributing to Workplace Deviance	Workplace deviance negatively impacts both organizational performance, and individuals’ morale and motivation.
Radzali et al. (2013)	Conceptual research study	Gender and Emotional Stability, Religiosity (Moderator)	Results were found to be a negative relationship with workplace deviance.
Sulaiman and Bhatti (2013)	Qualitative study	Spirituality	Findings show a negative association of spirituality with workplace deviance.
Chen et al. (2018)	Quantitative Research study	Service Climate, Ethical Values, and Individual Characteristics	The result revealed all variables significantly predict workplace deviance.
Hashim (2013)	Quantitative Research study	Human and Work Spirituality, Integrity	Results highlighted a negative relation amid counterproductive and workplace deviance.

3. Research methodology

This section demonstrates the research design, tools for data collection, and data analysis procedures for answering research questions (Patton, 2002). Qualitative research is an effective measure for investigating phenomena that are particularly related to human beings. The objective of qualitative analysis is to “investigate the meaning of social phenomena as experienced by the people themselves” (Malterud, 2001). Since facts differ from person to person, this study requires an interpretive approach. Relativism is the ontology of an interpretive paradigm, and subjectivism is the epistemology.

Due to time and resource constraints, a convenience sampling technique was applied for the present study (Farrokhi & Mahmoudi-Hamidabad, 2012). A research interview is described as “a procedure in which a researcher and participant participate in a conversation focused on topics relating to a research study” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). For the current study, the researchers employed semi-structured interviews. The interview guide gave participants the option to choose not to answer any questions that they considered may be harmful to their psychological, emotional, or other sorts of well-being. Participants were asked to volunteer their opinions on workplace deviance. Additionally, it was made sure that participants were not psychologically or emotionally affected in any way during the interviews. Due to data saturation (Guest et al., 2006; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015), respondents were limited to a total of 25. Creswell and Creswell (2018) and Marshall et al. (2013) contend that a sample size between 20 and 30 is more than sufficient for qualitative studies based on grounded theory.

The details of the respondents can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2. Respondents profile

Empirical Material respondent Number (EMI)	Gender	Experience	Designation	Sector
EMI1	Male	15 years	Senior Accountant	Private
EMI2	Female	30 years	Principal	Public
EMI3	Female	9 years	Coordinator	Private
EMI4	Male	2 years	Lecturer	Public
EMI5	Male	4 years	Credit Manager	Private
EMI6	Female	2 years	Teacher	Private
EMI7	Male	4 years	Auditor	Private
EMI8	Male	5 years	Customer relationship officer	Public
EMI9	Female	4 years	Head Teacher	Private
EMI10	Female	9 years	Office in charge	Private
EMI11	Male	2 and a half years	Lecturer	Public
EMI12	Male	17 years	Accountant	Public
EMI13	Female	4 and a half years	Banker	Private
EMI14	Male	6 years	Coordination Manager	Public
EMI15	Female	6 years	Junior officer	Public
EMI16	Male	3 years	Lab engineer	Private
EMI17	Male	13 years	Factory work	Private
EMI18	Male	7 years	IT Manager	Private
EMI19	Female	14 years	Coordination Manager	Private
EMI20	Female	6 years	Teacher	Public
EMI21	Female	19 years	College Head	private
EMI22	Male	10 years	Marketing Manager	Private
EMI23	Female	4 years	HR Manager	Private
EMI24	Male	10 years	Principal	Public
EMI25	Female	5 years	Banker	Public

Data was collected using semi-structured interviews with a variety of respondents working in the service and manufacturing sectors. Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews to link up with respondents as well as to acquire any useful additional information that may not have been available in the interview guidebook. This method is widely used in qualitative research since it allows the researcher to generate subjective information (Bachmann et al., 2007).

Variances and similarities in the interview transcripts were thoroughly reviewed and categorized. Concepts were developed based on observations. For data analysis, the Gioia methodology has been employed as it yields new opinions and grounded concepts with qualitative inductive evaluation. Qualitative research requires both precision and creativity from the researcher (Gioia et al., 2013). The Gioia methodology is preferred for qualitative research by numerous researchers as it is a more developed form of grounded theory and is a recommended technique for basic qualitative analysis (Hassan & Pandey, 2019; Nag & Gioia, 2012). The goal of a researcher employing this particular method is to generate ideas from ground-level data (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). The Gioia Grounded Theory considers organizational phenomena as socially constructed entities, and individuals know what they are trying to do and can explain their opinions, intentions, and activities (Gioia et al., 2013). Key features of Gioia methodology that enhance grounded theory development can be seen in Appendix I.

Hence, we interviewed employees and sought to interpret the data in a way that was close to their understanding. We also monitored the principle of starting with a defined interview guide that was personalized to our research question but flexible to adaptation and modification as research proceeded (Gioia et al., 2013).

Interview records and transcripts were examined and analyzed repeatedly using the Gioia methodology (Gioia et al., 2013; Nag & Gioia, 2012). Coding began with similar texts being added to the same division to mark first-order concepts through literature study. Similar coding was connected to second-order concepts. A similar type of second-order concept is shared to mark aggregate dimensions (Nag & Gioia, 2012). Concurrently with the development of the first-order concepts (an analysis using respondent-centric codes), linkages between the categories were discovered, which could lead to the development of second-order themes (ones using researcher-centric concepts, formulated at a more abstract level). It was possible to construct a grounded theoretical framework by connecting the concepts that arose from the data by grouping together second-order themes into aggregate dimensions (Gioia et al., 2013; Nag & Gioia, 2012).

3.1. Research findings

Three higher-order themes have been identified from 25 interviews. Themes comprised of commuting factors, social factors and individual’s lifestyle factors as an antecedent of workplace deviance.

3.2. Theme 1: commuting factor as a non-work antecedent of workplace deviance

The sub themes explored in commuting factors comprise road hindrances, conflict behaviors, traffic discipline, and over-speeding. Stephens et al. (2018) stated that driving problems are increasing day by day. Traffic issues are a crucial public health dilemma (Asbridge et al., 2006). Traffic problems are considered one of the major environmental issues that cause psychological ailments (Asbridge et al., 2006). According to Thørrisen (2013), impatient driving results in more aggressive attitudes.

Respondent 4 explained that the “Long-distance travel and long travel hours make me frustrated; hence, I behave rudely.”

Similarly, respondent 1 explained that

“I remember my arrival time at the office; those traffic barriers used to disturb me a lot.” This resulted in time waste, which irritates me. That’s why I think the traffic issue makes me aggressive. “Because of city traffic issues, I have to face frustration.”

In India, poor infrastructure on the roads creates a stressful experience. It’s an alarming situation for individuals and society’s mental health (Sagar et al., 2013). When it comes to road traffic accidents, Ahmed (2007) states that they are a huge drain on the economy, costing more than Rs. 100 billion (about $1.5 billion). According to Downing (1985), Pakistan has the 4th highest death rate due to accidents among 29 emerging nations and found road construction barriers to be a key issue. According to Sweet (2011), traffic congestion in the United States costs $16.01 per hour for private vehicles and $105.67 for commercial vehicles. Furthermore, there was almost a five-fold increase in the national cost of congestion between 1982 ($24 billion) and 2009 ($115 billion).

Referring to the same discussion, respondents 6 and 3 briefly explained that

“I get aggressive when I get late in the mornings because of traffic constraints, and obviously, due to this, my followers are also affected,” and “I mostly face traffic issues because of my travel problems, which makes me aggressive.” My office is an hour’s drive from my house. This distance irritates me at work (due to excessive travel time, I become annoyed or irritated).

Literature has shown that suburbanization as well as an increase in the number of vehicles between 1960 and 1994 contributed to an increase in road accidents (Ghaffar et al., 2001). According to M. A. Bhatti et al. (2008), road traffic injuries (RTIs) are the most commonly described injury type in Pakistani hospitals.

Moving on with the same discussion, the respondents 7 and 8 added that

“Traffic issues are mostly related to the traffic hindrances of my city that have a strong impact on my mood; I feel burnout when I cover the distance of 15 minutes in 30 to 40 minutes, which is too frustrating for me.” “Traffic issues … I think the major issue is related to road construction, and because of this, I started disliking driving in the morning time when I am on my way to the office in a rush because it slows me down,” respectively.

Respondent 23 added that because of city traffic issues our time gets disturbed. Literature supports this view that resources include objects, conditions, personal characteristics, and energies (time, money, and knowledge). Loss of resources, or the threat of loss, causes stress (Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999), and an individual will fall into certain levels of stress (Hobfoll, 1989).

Respondent 21 explained that

“I can remember the moment when I had to reach a meeting on time; I tried my best to drive as fast as I could.” “On the way, I faced a conflict that frustrated me, and I became rude (driving constraints create disruptive situations for me).”

The study by Abiodun (2014) stated that conflicts are unavoidable in human life. If conflicts are not well managed, they cause organizational loss (Abiodun, 2014). The impact of conflict among employees on organizational productivity has already been studied by various researchers (Leung, 2010; Robins et al., 2011).

Respondents 24 and 16 explained the vulgar language, gestures, and annoying expressions of other road users as the reasons for conflicts that disturb their mood. Sadia et al. (2018) studied the role of aggressive behavior and the number of accidents in a sample of Pakistani drivers. Results of the study also highlighted a positive correlation among driving experience, age, and anger expressions. The Canadian context revealed a similar story: aggressive driving actions occur at a rate of more than 30% in Ontario.

Respondent 12 clarified that

“I get tired or feel fed up because of other road users’ behavior, and I think everyone faces this problem.” Daily accidents occur because of the negligence of our government towards the implementation and enforcement of traffic laws. “I’m fed up with it all.”

Similarly, respondent 18 explained his personal experience that

“Conflict with other road users” normally occurs … I think it is also becoming routine in our area … especially since people in our society are impatient and have a nonsense attitude … Again, it’s a fact that if someone sees me making rude gestures, eventually I will get involved in an argument. A few days ago, I was reading a survey of the number of accidents in different provinces. I was stunned to find out the reasons, and one of the key issues was related to road users’ “harsh and rude attitude or gestures, e.g., staring at others.”

The number of drivers with aggressive behavior is rising (Shinar, 1998). Aggression while driving has a huge impact on mental health. (Sagar et al., 2013). According to Ulleberg (2004), there are three basic forms of driving: road rage, the intention of threatening road users, and the threat felt by other road users. The intention to inflict or injure the physical or psychological state of other road users is called “road rage” (Lajunen et al., 1998). Secondly, driving with the intention of threatening others and putting their physical or psychological health at risk may or may not be intentional. It could be out of annoyance or anger, or to attain a definite objective (Shinar, 1998). Conflict is regarded negatively and is linked with negative consequences such as destruction (Robins et al., 2011). As a result, conflict behavior causes employees to deviate at work.

Similarly, respondents 13 and 14 explained that “The amount of traffic, the lack of road usage education, and the violation of traffic rules are causing problems for every citizen.”

Respondent 5 claimed that a traffic collision had an influence on his daily normal activities: “I’ll never forget the day I witnessed a death as a result of an accident on my way to work.” “I was emotionally troubled that day, therefore I couldn’t execute my tasks.”

According to respondent 19, “because of the biometric attendance system, I have to rush to my office, which is over 90 minutes away from home, which makes me uneasy.”

Respondents 17, 20, and 22 explain that mostly they drive rashly, ignoring traffic rules, to reach the workplace on time. McKenna et al. (2006) contributed to the reasons for high traffic accidents and explained that speeding issues during driving cause negative results. As stated by Arain and Arain (2016), Pakistan’s driving behavior data indicates that out of 3000 vehicles observed, 697 (23.23%) were over-speeding. Besides, 89.43% of the time, over-speeders are not charged for violating the speed limit. Until now, the phenomenon of rash driving and its negative impact have been studied from the perspective of road accidents. McKenna et al. (2006) contributed to the reasons for high traffic accidents and explained that speeding has negative consequences.

According to respondent 11, “I recall arriving at the office late due to traffic. Waiting during traffic jams and business hours irritates me greatly because it is uncontrollable and makes me unhappy.”

Speeding is one of the primary causes of automobile accidents and loss of control (West & Hall, 1997). The views on driving expressed above are congruent with the literature; the environment is a potent stimulant for human well-being (Westman, 2001). One of the most serious environmental issues is traffic congestion (Asbridge et al., 2006). Driving limitations, according to the research, are one of the environmental antecedents that create undesirable outcomes such as ill-health, hostility, stress, emotional weariness, unhappiness, a poor level of morality, psychological illness, conflicts, and so on.

The details of commuting factor theme can be seen in Table 3 and Figure 2.

Figure 2. Commuting factor as a non-work antecedent of workplace deviance theme 2: social factors as a non-work antecedent of workplace deviance.

Table 3. Commuting factor theme

Theme 1: Commuting Factor as a Non-Work Antecedent of Workplace Deviance
EMI	1^stOrder Concept	2nd Order Concept	Aggregate Dimension
EMI 1	Excess travelling time creates frustration in me	Road Hindrances	Commuting factor
EMI 3	City over traffic and roads issues irritates me
EMI 4	Long driving time/hours make me annoyed
EMI 6	Road construction barriers divert my mood
EMI 7	A lot of traffic hindrances make me burnout
EMI 8	Construction barriers reduced the travelling speed
EMI 23	Road/traffic barriers waste my time resource a lot
EMI 2	Other drivers’ non-serious attitudes cause accidents	Traffic Discipline
EMI 5	Roadside accidents cause mental disturbance
EMI 9	Lack of public awareness about traffic discipline causes frustration
EMI 10	Underage youngsters’ driving behavior cause accidents
EMI 13	Lack of traffic awareness causes accidents/deaths
EMI 14	Violation of traffic rules resulted in problems for other citizens
EMI 15	Lack of traffic laws information among road users is the biggest problem
EMI 12	Other road users miss behavior creates aggression	Conflict Behaviour
EMI 16	Bad manners of other drivers are a cause of my rude behavior
EMI 18	Rude gesture originates dispute with other drivers
EMI 21	Conflict with other driver makes me annoyed and divert my attention
EMI 24	The vulgar language of other drivers makes me harsh
EMI 25	Absence of traffic responsiveness cause dispute among drivers
EMI 11	Waiting situation in heavy traffic hours make annoyed	Over Speeding
EMI 17	Often, I over speed to reach the workplace on time
EMI 19	Sometimes I drive very fast to reach early
EMI 20	Sometimes I drive through traffic lights
EMI 22	Sometimes I ignore the speed limits

The second sub-theme that emerged from social factors is family-work conflict and distributed social relations.

There are numerous definitions of social factors in the literature. Social pressure is defined by Wadman et al. (2011) as “the feelings of discomfort that individuals experience in social contexts.” Social stresses were defined by Ilfeld (1977) as “circumstances of daily social roles that are typically seen as undesirable.”

Social stressors are described by Dormann and Zapf (2004) as “a set of situations or behaviors that are associated with psychological or physical strain and are social in origin.” Social stress can be caused by anything that affects or threatens to impair their connections with others (Dormann & Zapf, 2004).

Respondents 12, 4, and 25 indicated that family responsibilities keep them mindful at work, meanwhile respondents 1, 3, 5, and 8 stated that “their emotional bond with their families compels them to be mindful of them even at work.”

Respondent 4 added that;

“I still recall a day when I was actively working. I received an unexpected call from home, which not only sapped my energy but also impeded my performance, as it was a cause of interruption. It diminished my degree of commitment to my task. I experienced a work interruption due to unexpected news from home.”

Respondent 2 explained that

“Peer support plays a significant role in one’s everyday life and can have a significant impact on one’s mood, just as family duties can affect one’s disposition. I used to feel fatigued during the entire day as a result of the disputes I experienced with my peers. (I used to spend my days in a state of exhaustion due to conflicts with my colleagues.) “.

Organizations are bearing a cost because of conflicting family and work roles. To offset this cost, organizational responsiveness is a significant factor that leads to job satisfaction, a lower turnover rate, a higher organizational commitment (Allen, 2001), an advanced level of organizational routine (Perry-Smith & Blum, 2000), and a reduction in the negative impact of work-family conflict (Behson, 2002).

Similarly, respondent 21 contributed that

“Household chores irritate me because they pull my attention away from my work. As a mother, I am constantly aware of my parental responsibility, which causes me to be reclusive at work.”

Among the most notable realms of life is the family-work domain (Andrews, 1976). Literature supports that family-work pressure causes deviance because roles and expectations concerning these two are not well-matched (Netemeyer et al., 1996).

The response of respondent 18 clearly illustrated the interactions between the family and professional spheres: “As a parent, I must manage numerous tasks and assume obligations whether I am leaving or returning from work. Too many responsibility may result in workplace disturbances.”

Continuing with the same discourse, respondent 16 added, “Family obligations and responsibilities can make people conscious at work or divert focus from job duties.” Both respondents 17 and 10 acknowledged that a change in marital status heightens their awareness of familial obligations. Respondent 14 emphasised further that “extended family and in-laws’ responsibilities are always on your mind, whether you are at the office or at home.” Similarly, respondents 11, 9, and 4 claimed “conflicts with my partner also produce stressful situations” and that “single-parent obligations and family separation concerns make me feel lonely,” respectively.

The issue of stress caused by balancing work and family responsibilities has been widely highlighted in recent years (Grandey et al., 2005). Work-family conflict is not unidirectional and causes negative outcomes for both work and home (Jung Choi & Tae Kim, 2012; Kalliath et al., 2012). Choi et al. (2008) conducted a research among Chinese employees related to the impact of work family demands towards life stress. Outcomes recommended that both the family and work burdens are connected to the life stress.

In addition, while discussing job and social life, respondent 10 stated, “I feel unmotivated and helpless owing to a lack of social connection.” Similarly, respondents 12 and 17 respectfully expressed that “social refusal makes them feel discouraged” and “I always felt helpless whenever I confronted problems with my friends or rejection from my friends’ side.” According to the research, social networks are a significant factor in human happiness (Westman, 2001). There is a similarity between what occurs at work and within the confines of the home (Hollinger & Clark, 1982). Researchers discussed the influence of social contacts and their positive results (Michalik & Sznicer, 2017; Ünal, 2014; Vivona). Human social interaction influences human conduct (Vivona, 2014).

Respondents 22, 21, and 7 stated, “I frequently recall the wonderful recollections I’ve established with my social circle to refresh my mind.” Respondent 16 continued with a similar explanation, stating, “When my social group refused to assist me with my job task, I felt depressed” and “Work makes me overwhelmed; I miss my social circle’s group, and it afflicts me whenever I believe that I am unable to manage my social circle interactions due to my work load.”

Literature supports the notion that social influences mitigate the detrimental effects of antisocial behavior (Bono et al., 2013). More and more firms have begun to recognize the importance of emotional sharing in the workplace and encourage its use among employees (Michalik & Sznicer, 2017).

According to respondents 3, 8, and 24, “social activities would decrease due to demanding work schedules.” Respondents 6, 14, and 5 describe the lack of social time and unfavourable results of workplace settings, respectively.

Daily hassles are the minor events that occur, which require adaptation throughout the day, for example: disagreements (Carr, 2013). There are three main categories of social stressors. Life events, chronic strains, and daily hassles (Levine, 2017).

Respondents 2, and 25 added that

“Time constraints make it difficult to manage social routines. For example, I am working overtime in the office due to an overloaded work schedule, which makes me feel deprived as I have no time to meet my friends. Feeling alone is impacting me in the worst possible way regarding my work performance,” respectively.

The details of social factor theme can be seen in Table 4 and Figure 3.

Figure 3. Social Factors as a Non-Work Antecedent of Workplace Deviance.

Table 4. Social factor theme

Theme 2: Social Factors as a Non-Work Antecedent of Workplace Deviance
EMI	1^st Order Concepts	2nd Order Concepts	Aggregate Dimension
EMI 1,3,4,5,7,8,12	Often I remain conscious of my family demands at work that divert attention from work	Family-work Conflict	Social Factors
EMI 2,6,13,24	Sometimes peer dispute/conflict makes my job more hectic
EMI 9,20	Family separation matters make me feel alone
EMI 11,19	Loss of a family member affects my energy level or mental wellbeing
EMI 10,14,17	Change in marital status/responsibilities affect my other work activities
EMI 16, 22	Often my work performance suffers because of my family commitments
EMI 18, 15,21	Family responsibilities are hindering my work activities.
EMI 1,9,15	I feel upset/alert at work if something unexpected happens in my social life	Disturbed Social Relations
EMI 3,8,24	My social activities are going to be less day by day
EMI 2	I face social time scarcity because of prolonged work hours or daily routine
EMI 19	I can’t find time for my peers in my busy routine
EMI 6,14,5	Often, I feel that I have a less supportive social circle as compared to other colleagues
EMI 7,21,22	I normally think of good days at the workplace
EMI 12,17	Feeling disheartened because of a lack of support from my friends
EMI 18,23	I normally think of social disagreement that happened because of my hectic job
EMI 11,4,25	Often, I feel helpless to manage my social life
EMI 13,16,20	Feeling demotivated when I found no time to attend my social event
EMI10	Often, I feel demotivated because of a lack of unsocial hours

4. Theme 3: individual unhealthy lifestyle factors as a non-work antecedent of workplace deviance

The third sub-theme that emerged was unhealthy lifestyle, which comprised of second-order themes such as attitude, physical inactivity, and sleep deprivation.

Respondent 1 revealed that “because of my aggressive nature, I can easily become frustrated and disrespectful to my colleagues. It’s not something I do only to upset my coworkers; it’s a habit. This aggressiveness does not stop at the office; it follows me home as well.”

Similarly, respondent 20 indicated, “I believe that my hostility and misbehavior are my greatest vulnerabilities; I often consider ways to overcome them, and sometimes I succeed, but I am unable to change myself or permanently eliminate this conduct.”

Respondent 9 stated, “One of the primary causes of my negative behaviour is my lack of tolerance and self-control.” Respondent 21 further elaborated that

“there are so many problems in everyone’s lives that might lead to a foul mood, silence, or despair. I believe that life is a collection of challenges that each individual must face on his or her own, but as a result of my constant mental stress, I eventually indulged in workplace deviance.”

Respondents 15, 6, and 3 described their personalities as aggressive or hot-headed. Aggression is an action or series of actions meant to cause harm to other individuals (Parke & Slaby, 1983). As certain personality traits have been recognized as important factors to workplace deviance, it is probable that a negative attitude diminishes employees’ enthusiasm to work for their firm (see, Berry et al., 2007). According to research, individual differences have a significant impact on workplace deviance (Bechtoldt et al., 2007; Berry et al., 2007; Burton & Hoobler, 2011; Ng & Feldman, 2008; Scheuer, 2010; Spector & Fox, 2005). Douglas and Martinko (2001) observed that individual characteristics such as attribution style and self-control account for 60% of changes in workplace violence. An organization’s success or failure is largely dependent on its workforce, therefore whatever impacts the employees’ life will eventually affect the organization’s outcomes. Individual characteristics have a direct impact on workplace aberrant behavior.

According to respondents 9, 14, and 15, the usage of social networking websites during office hours is the most prevalent or emerging practice. Respondent 14 revealed, “Whenever I feel tedious from lack of sleep or am not in the mood to work, I begin utilising my cell phone.” In addition, the respondent stated, “My normal activities are becoming more difficult, which is harming my sleeping schedule. As a result, I am unable to perform passionately at the office.” Respondent 19 said, “It occurs to me because of my long working hours; I do not get enough sleep, which causes me to feel depressed and unmotivated when accomplishing work duties. Typically, I spend time on Facebook, although knowing that it is against company rules, but I do it frequently to boost my energy or to feel refreshed.”

Cyberloafing, as explained by Derin and Gökçe (2016), is the use of office internet for personal purposes while seeming to be conducting official business. Because the internet has blurred the border between work and non-work, it is crucial to know that most employees are unaware of the negative effects of cyberloafing. According to Henle et al. (2009), cyberloafing affects employee productivity by 30–40% and costs $759 billion annually in the United States.

As per respondents 8 and 24, their sleeping habits make them sluggish in their office work tasks. Respondent 18 revealed, “My schedule is becoming increasingly stressful; sometimes I feel like I work nonstop, and my social life is over since I have no time to sleep.” “Perhaps a lack of sleep makes it harder for me to operate with full vigour and mental focus.”

Studies conducted in the United States demonstrate that sleep quantity is positively associated with self-control resources and negatively associated with unethical behavior (Barnes et al., 2011), positively associated with organizational citizenship behavior (OCB; Barnes et al., 2013), and positively associated with charismatic leadership skills (Barnes et al., 2016). By emphasizing sleep, nutrition, and physical activity, people are encouraged to live a healthy lifestyle. Lifestyle refers to the characteristics of employees, such as their everyday actions and work responsibilities. The study of a person’s health behavior is directly associated with their lifestyle. The impact of one’s lifestyle on their health is worrying. Unhealthy dietary habits have been researched as a lifestyle attribute associated with the majority of the world’s employees (Farhud, 2015; Omang et al., 2018). Therefore, employees should make a concerted effort to avoid unhealthy habits in and out of the workplace.

During interviews with respondents on their personal feelings and how these affect the workplace, a number of respondents stated that their physical inactivity and health-related behaviors negatively impact workplace productivity. Respondent 2 stated, “Sometimes I feel I am becoming more aggressive because I am unable to find time for self-care and physical activities that I believe are vital for my mental health. Yes, I occasionally ignore my followers for no apparent reason when I am annoyed or in a foul mood.”

Similarly, respondent 16 recounts

“I had kept myself going for a long time. I used to undertake proper physical workouts, and whenever I had time for them, it improved both my attitude and energy level. Now I have the impression that something is being overlooked. People who exercise regularly and are cognizant of their physical well-being habits, such as myself, suffer from both work and non-work activities “.

Low levels of physical activity are associated with increased mortality, hypertension, and heart disease (Leitzmann et al., 2007). According to respondent 13, “my normal activities are so complex that I feel my health is deteriorating day by day.” “I am noticing several changes in myself and my conduct.”

Physical activity improves mental health by lowering stress and anxiety, amplifying the favourable effect. According to the literature, there is a direct relationship between employees’ physical activities and positive work outcomes. The World Health Organization and the World Economic Forum, for example, stated in 2011 that physical activity should be encouraged in the workplace (Birdee et al., 2013).

Table 5 and Figure 4 show the details of the lifestyle factor theme, and Figure 5 shows the schematic diagram of research findings.

Figure 4. Individual lifestyle factor as a non-work antecedent of workplace.

Source: Developed by authors

Figure 5. Systematic diagram of research findings discussion and Conclusion.

Table 5. Life style theme

Theme 3: Lifestyle Factors as a Non-Work Antecedent of Workplace Deviance
EMI	1^st Order Concepts	2nd Order Concept	Aggregate Dimension
EMI 1	When I am frustrated, I show it to others	Attitude	Lifestyle Factors
EMI 9	I wonder why I lose my patience easily
EMI 15,6	Others think that I am a hothead
EMI 20	I have an aggressive nature, so I misbehave sometimes with others
EMI 21	I often think about domestic problems at work
EMI 7,22	I remain constantly worried that affects my work
EMI 23	I am facing a lot of thoughts in my mind at work
EMI 3, 12	Often, I feel dissatisfied with my quality of life
EMI 2	I am unable to find time for my physical well-being/fitness	Physical Inactivity
EMI 16	Sometimes when I found time for proper exercise, I feel well
EMI 4	I find insufficient physical activities in my routine work
EMI 13	My physical health is getting affected day by day
EMI 10	Poor diet is negatively affecting my work and non-work life patterns
EMI 11, 25	Sometimes I feel dissatisfied with my routine work activities
EMI 5	I normally stay plugged in with my office task even if I leave the office
EMI 17	I am having lack of sleep	Sleep Deprivation
EMI 8, 24	I feel I am getting lazy at work because of my sleeping habits
EMI 18	My sleeping habits are finishing my mental activeness at work
EMI 19	Because of a lack of sleep often I feel low energy level at work
EMI 9,14	I normally spend time on social sites to get rid of laziness

Work and non-work boundaries are frequently compromised, resulting in stressful feelings that affect people’s personal and professional life (Von Bergen & Bressler, 2019). Bogaerts et al. (2018) highlighted the importance and limits of work-life management fit. According to Alias et al (2013), the United States lost around $4.2 billion due to workplace violence, $200 billion owing to yearly employee theft, $5.3 billion because of internet browsing or “cyberloafing” during working hours, and $30 billion from absenteeism. These findings indicate that every organization has direct economic implications as a result of deviant behavior (Alias et al ., 2013). To strengthen the literature, additional theoretical details and implications of workplace misbehavior are desired (Bennett et al., 2018). Based on the findings of this study, organizations should offer counseling sessions or seminars to employees in order to improve their mental health and control negative behavior. The findings of this study can aid in the comprehension of negative employee responses and assure the organization’s improved performance.

In this exploratory study, researchers identified 3 key themes related to external organizational concerns that worsen workplace deviance: commuting factors, social factors, and lifestyle factors. Continuing the debate of spillover-crossover model by Bakker and Sanz-Vergel (2013), human beings are also expression of singularity, where stressors and loads of one part of life can alter the performance in another part of social life. There isn’t any sharp line which switches human beings from one social act to another. As expressed in current study that road rage or stress of commute translates its pressure in a different form at the workplace.

While focusing on deviance, family and work domains are reflected as significant life areas (Andrews, 1976). The literature explains that the roles or expectations regarding these two are not always well-matched. That’s why when an individual faces challenges that ultimately instigate conflicts among these (Netemeyer et al., 1996), Work-family conflict has been acknowledged; it is a well-known concern in today’s world (Grandey et al., 2005). According to Vanderpool and Way (2013), the family-work interface is a bidirectional aspect that has negative consequences for both work and home (Jung Choi & Tae Kim, 2012; Kalliath et al., 2012). Work-life balance has different perspectives in eastern and western cultures; Chandra (2012) work highlighted how western companies are more sensitive to the work-life balance of their employees. The current study is conducted with participants of oriental origin, thus suggesting that organizations operating in oriental domains add sensitivity to the work-life balance debate.

The literature agrees that spending time on social media during working hours is also deviant (Amble, 2004). While an employee is not involved in stealing an organization’s physical equipment, spending time on social media is stealing an organization’s valuable time, which increases the cost for businesses (Amble, 2004).Cyberloafing is a unique form of deviance in which employees spend around 40% of their job time using the company’s internet for personal use, which costs millions a year, according to the UK industry (Hallett, 2002). Based on the assumption of the spillover-crossover model (Bakker & Sanz-Vergel, 2013), we have generated themes suggesting that non-work-related factors are creating stressful situations whose outcomes are deviant behavior. An individual facing stressful conditions in one domain of life results in increased stress in another domain of life (from home to work). For a similar individual (Crouter, 1984), behaviors and actions carry over from one role to another. There may be non-work-related factors that spread negative emotions (Westman, 2001).

The environment or social network is thought to be a stimulus factor for human happiness. It draws parallels between what happens at work and at home (Staines, 1980). Seeing this association with social exchange theory (Blau, 1968), we can say that employees’ perceptions are forecasters of attitudes, and in turn, these attitudes are predictors of performance behaviors. Hence, this study finds that employees’ negative behavior depends on how they perceive their surroundings. A negative event can take away the motivation to work in favor of the organization. However, a new study of cyberloafing is required to determine that not all forms of cyberloafing are harmful to an organization or an employee’s personal well-being. It’s like closing all the windows at the workplace and not allowing employees to see outside. Similarly, cyberloafing can serve as a means of normalizing stress from the outside world.

5. Practical implications and future research directions

This study provides practitioners and scholars with a conceptual model to analyze and clarify through empirical investigation. Researchers should investigate the non-work antecedents of workplace deviance. This study assists managers and policymakers in facilitating or understanding negative employee responses in order to improve the performance of their firms and society. Organizations should offer seminars and training sessions to their staff to help them deal with stressful situations. According to this debate, the current exploratory study assists policymakers or strategists in considering the impact of non-work antecedents in the workplace and creates considerations for employees’ psychological well-being. This study will assist policymakers and managers in understanding additional root causes of deviant behavior in order to develop relevant remedies. The current exploratory study’s conceptual framework assists managers in avoiding what is commonly referred to as deviant behavior. For future research, researchers can empirically investigate the relationship between identified commuting, social, and lifestyle factors with workplace deviance. The current study’s findings serve as another reminder to recognize humans as complex entities manifesting themselves in diverse social settings, and the reasons of each setting will transform results in another context. Workers and employees who must travel vast distances can be offered flex hours. Technology has made it easy to check each employee’s commute distance and traffic conditions. Flex hours will provide additional freedom to workers and employees that commute from a longer distance.

In addition to an empirical investigation to verify the results of the current study, the field of psychology requires a Freudian (Erwin, 2002) explanation of the spillover model to explain how sub-conscious stressors manifest in other social contexts. Work-family difficulties, paired with a stressful commute, might set off a chain reaction of new workplace behaviors. In Freud’s work, classical interpretations of the same occurrence surfaced. Unconscious and subconscious experiences contribute over time to the development of immediate experience.

A further practical application is that, prior to an employee’s evaluation, a 360-degree examination of his life may be undertaken, taking into account limits such as distance from work, daily commuting time, and so on. Such phenomena have yet to be incorporated into the annual appraisals of employees, particularly in Pakistan’s work culture.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Waqas Farooq

Dr. Waqas Farooq is currently working as an Associate Professor at Hailey College of Commerce, University of the Punjab, Pakistan. Teaching and research interest are in OB, HR, leadership, Islamic management, and business strategy. He has published his work in several national and international journals. He is also an approved consultant by National Business Development Corporation Pakistan and has worked with various national and international organizations.

Omar Khalid Bhatti

Dr. Omar Khalid Bhatti is an Associate Professor of Management at the School of Business at Istanbul Medipol University. IIU-Malaysia awarded him a PhD in Business (with a specialization in organizational behavior). His research work mostly falls under the umbrella of organizational behavior, strategic management, strategic management of supply chains, and Islamic management, and he has been involved in teaching the same topics at postgraduate level. He has extensive international corporate experience and was also a former Chief Researcher and Government Consultant for Pakistan on the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor from 2015 to 2017.

Rabeea Ishaq

Rabeea Ishaq is a PhD scholar in School of Business and Economics, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. Her research interest is in the areas of Human Resource Management and Organizational behavior. She has an ambitious aspiration that her hard work and research contributions in the discipline of Human resource management and organizational behavior will assist to form constructive outcomes for business organizations in this contemporary world.

Sadaf Kashif

Dr. Sadaf Kashif graduated from Robert Moris University, Pennsylvania, United States in Communications and Information systems. Her PhD thesis titled as “A Comparison of online learning: perceptions of Indian and American graduate students”. She has earned an M.S degree in Communications and Information systems from the same institution. She has an associate degree in Visual Communications from Brook Heaven community college, Dallas, TX, USA. She has an M.B.A in Marketing from University of Central Punjab, Pakistan. She has an experience of teaching in United States for more than 10 years. She has been serving as a Head of Department at Iqra University, Islamabad campus for the past 4 years.

Appendix I

Features of the Methodology That Enhance Grounded Theory Development.

Table

Step ^a	Key Features
Research Design	Articulate a well-defined phenomenon of interest and research question(s) (research question[s] framed in “how” terms aimed at surfacing concepts and their inter-relationships) Initially consult with existing literature, with suspension of judgment about its conclusions to allow discovery of new insights
Data Collection	Give extraordinary voice to informants, who are treated as knowledgeable agents Preserve flexibility to adjust interview protocol based on informant responses “Backtrack” to prior informants to ask questions that arise from subsequent interviews
Data Analysis	Perform initial data coding, maintain the integrity to 1st-order (informant-centric) terms Develop a comprehensive compendium of 1st-order terms Organize 1st-codes into 2nd- order (theory-centric) themes Distill 2nd-order themes into overarching theoretical themes Assemble terms, themes, and dimensions into a “data structure”
Grounded Theory Articulation	Formulate dynamic relationships among the 2nd-order concepts in data structure Transform static data structure into dynamic grounded theory model Conduct additional consultations with the literature to refine articulation of emergent concepts and relationships

^aThe Research Design and Data Collection steps are moderate variations on traditional grounded theory approaches.The Data Analysis and Grounded Theory Articulation steps constitute the main distinctive features of the approach

Source: Adopted from Gioia et al. (2013)