Reconsidering technical education in Saxony: human resource development for an industrialised society and brain drain

Abstract

This study critically examines the impact of technical education institutions on the early industrialisation of 19th-century Saxony, highlighting the role of the Technischen Bildungsanstalt zu Dresden in equipping the Saxon region with skilled workers, in line with post-Seven Years’ War recovery efforts: Rétablissement. Since the 18th century, educational entities have been established to cater to the technological needs driven by economic and societal imperatives. The study scrutinises the TBA curricula and explores the evolution of course offerings, in alignment with societal requirements. While TBA alumni significantly contributed to Saxony’s machine and railway sectors, the number of skilled workers produced was not sufficient to fully sustain industrialisation. Although many graduates secured employment within the manufacturing sector and contributed as educators, the emigration of professionals to less competitive markets abroad indicated brain drain. Notably, some graduates sought opportunities outside Saxony in German-speaking and non-German-speaking regions, indicating a trend of highly educated workforce emigration. This study reveals that TBA’s influence on Saxony’s industrial progress was substantial and that it contributed to the global technical labour market, underscoring the broader international relevance of technical education. This study re-evaluates the regional and international significance of technical education, offering new insights from a historical perspective.

Keywords:

• Engineering education
• industrialisation
• human capital outflow
• Saxon economic history
• vocational training

Reviewing Editor:

• Adu-Gyamfi Samuel, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana

Subjects:

• History of Engineering and Technology
• Industry and Industrial Studies
• Higher Education
• History of Education
• Education–Social Sciences

Introduction

Were the technical institutes established successively in Germany during the 19th century not pivotal in the early stages of industrialisation? An affirmative response seems self-evident; however, this question appears to have received lesser significance in contemporary discourse.¹ Nevertheless, technical education has been instrumental in numerous significant technological advancements. Indeed, the recent trajectory of technological progress has been extraordinary, encompassing innovations, such as generative artificial intelligence, autonomous vehicle technology, global positioning systems, and a range of eco-friendly technologies, among others. A considerable proportion of these technologies came from engineering faculties in universities and engineering schools. The alumni of such institutions² comprise several recipients of esteemed accolades, including the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering and the Charles Stark Draper Prize for Engineering. Engineering programmes are indispensable for providing students with systematic knowledge and skills in natural sciences and stimulating technological innovation.

Some studies have suggested that multifaceted attempts towards engineering education in 19th-century Germany may have had a negligible impact on industrialisation. Early German technical and commercial academies played minor roles in cultivating technically adept personnel in the manufacturing sector (König, 1998, p. 120).³ However, educational historiography, which tends to celebrate the illustrious legacy of universities, rarely focuses on this perception. Additionally, the mandate of engineering educational establishments was primarily to prepare educators for various academic institutions, rather than to foster practical application, as seen in the training of engineers (Schubring, 2012, p. 269). These institutions were more focused on teaching applied sciences in an academic context. Consequently, in the domain of educator training, their contribution to industrialisation may not have been directly or immediately apparent.⁴

Moreover, the chronicles of German technical universities are often overshadowed by historical constructs of the 19th century. Prompted by the French École Polytechnique, established in the waning years of the 18th century, a proliferation of analogous institutions burgeoned across the German territories in the 19th century (Ahlström, 1978, p. 51; Oita, 1990, pp. 90–95). A prime example is the Technischen Bildungsanstalt zu Dresden (TBA),⁵ which was instituted in 1828 within the Kingdom of Saxony.⁶ The TBA progressively refined its curricular offerings to address the societal demand for engineering training, concurrent with the expansion of the machine-building, railway, and chemical sectors in the 19th century. Consequently, scholarly examination of the TBA has been predominantly concentrated on the period from the 19th century onwards. Nonetheless, to fully comprehend the TBA, one must consider it within the milieu of reforms initiated by the ‘Rétablissement’,⁷ a rejuvenation scheme to surmount the ravages of the Seven Years’ War in Saxony (Morel, 2014).

This study adopts a historical lens to scrutinise two notions: the hypothesis that technical education may not have significantly fuelled Saxony’s industrialisation, and the historical placement of Saxony’s engineering education, tracing back to the 18th century. It analyses whether the TBA contributed to the industrialisation of Saxony, based on the history of its establishment, content of its courses’ curriculum, and career paths of its graduates.⁸ The success of engineering schools was predominantly measured by knowledge dissemination and the professional trajectories of their alumni, as their primary function was the impartation of specialised knowledge, rather than the incubation of novel technologies (König, 1998, pp. 118–119).

Establishment of the TBA: history from the 18th century

In the aftermath of the Seven Years’ War, Saxony embarked on ‘Rétablissement’, a reform designed to actuate socio-economic resurgence.⁹ The outcomes of this reform have been appraised through multifarious lenses. However, from an industrialisation standpoint, they culminated in the following: enhancement of product quality; adoption, manufacturing, and refinement of machinery within the machine-building industry; instigation of engineering education (see Forberger, 1958 and Horii, 2020). These reformative measures persisted into the first half of the 19th century, facilitating the infusion of modern technology into Saxon society. This strategic infusion established the foundation for thriving industrialisation, which had its genesis in the latter half of the 18th century and reached its zenith during the industrial epoch of the 19th century.

Given the history of engineering colleges, the process of their establishment is often regarded as ‘pushed into the 19th century’. Saxony had already been promoting efforts related to technical education to recover from the devastation caused by the Seven Years’ War; the establishment of the TBA is one such project (Morel, 2014, pp. 17–19).

This section delineates a historical overview of the foundation of the TBA. Our examination transcends a mere chronological record; we juxtapose the TBA against other educational entities formed in response to societal demands pertinent to the Rétablissement while contextualising the TBA’s narrative within its 18th-century origins. In the case of Saxony, while universities were inaugurated in Leipzig (1409) and Wittenberg (1502), Dresden and other localities with burgeoning mining and manufacturing activities were devoid of such institutions. In these university-absent regions, the expertise required by administrative personnel within the manufacturing and the forestry sectors had to be assimilated through practical experience, despite an escalating demand for specialised skills and knowledge (Morel, 2014, p. 21).

Therefore, from the 18th century, there had been growing demand for the systematic education of useful knowledge that could be utilised in the workplace. According to the Handbuch der Schul-Statistik für das Königreich Sachsen, 1900 (HSSKS), the major educational institutions before the establishment of the TBA were Allgemeine Kunst-Academie der Malerey, Bildhauer-Kunst, Kupferstecher- und Baukunst¹⁰ (KA), Bergakademie Freiberg¹¹ (BAF), and Königlich-Sächsische Forstakademie¹² (KSFA).¹³

Founded in 1705 by Elector August II as the Malerakademie, the institution was reconstituted as the Kunstakademie in 1764, under the directive of the late Elector Friedrich Christian, following von Hagedorn’s blueprint.¹⁴ This restructuring was part of the Rétablissement. It was predicated on the conviction that an educational system designed to elevate the calibre of domestic manufacturers’ products through artistic training would yield beneficial economic and societal outcomes (Uppenkamp, 2018, pp. 110–111). Similarly, the BAF was established in 1764 to aid the nation’s recuperation after the Seven Years’ War. Even before the BAF, Freiberg was esteemed beyond Saxony as a nexus for mining or mining education, drawing numerous individuals from Germany and other countries. The BAF’s establishment was intended to impart systematic education in mining and contributed significantly to the advancement of industrial production (Grabow, 2015, pp. 370–380).

Another institution that emerged in response to societal needs was the KSFA. The 18th century witnessed an accelerated progression in mining and metallurgy, precipitating an intensified demand for timber and leading to severe overharvesting and partial deforestation. Cotta was committed to remedying this situation by founding the Privat Forstlehr Anstalt in 1811, which was elevated to the status of the Royal School of Saxony by decree in 1816, and saw it reopening as the KSF in the same year (Lochmann, 2005).¹⁵

Furthermore, as part of the Rétablissement to improve the society’s economic situation, Preisaufgabe, a prize competition¹⁶ that had been in effect since 1764, encouraged the construction of technical education schools. For instance, Prize no. 39, issued in 1788, encourages the establishment of a spinning school as follows:¹⁷

Whoever establishes a spinning school in a place where spinning has not been customary before (…) shall receive the following according to the number of apprentices and also according to the nature and quantity of the spun fabric…10, 20 to 30 Taler.¹⁸

This was intended to promote the developing cotton industry.

These establishments were instituted with the dual objectives of surmounting the adversities resulting from the Seven Years’ War and contributing to the development of the industry. They were intended to propel the advancement of Saxony, laying the foundation for a systematic—albeit initially insufficient—educational framework.

Conversely, despite the penetration of the machine-building industry following the introduction of spinning machines in the 18th century, the establishment of educational institutions dedicated to the study of machine building did not follow immediately in the 19th century.¹⁹ Initiatives in this direction were consistently thwarted. For instance, Wilhelm Ernst August von Schlieben proposed to the Landes-, Ökonomie-, Manufaktur- und Kommerziendeputation the creation of an institution akin to the Ecole Polytechnique; however, his report was dismissed as superfluous. Subsequently, numerous propositions were rebuffed. The discourse on the merits and drawbacks of founding an engineering university in Saxony was dominated by the immediate imperative to enhance manufacturing and artisanship. Therefore, the inception of an educational establishment was not deemed optimal (Morel, 2014, pp. 25–27). The endorsement of an engineering educational establishment ultimately hinged on a proposition of the Ökonomische Gesellschaft im Königreiche Sachsen.²⁰ The institution was inaugurated as a modest project with an initial outlay amounting to approximately one-tenth (625 Thaler) of the previously solicited funds.²¹

The TBA dispensed specialised education in machine building, a curriculum that had not been previously addressed by any established school in Saxony. It represented an endeavour to augment the achievements of Rétablissement by education, specifically targeting the nascent machine-building sector, contrary to the more traditional disciplines of the arts, mining, forestry, and textile industries.

In this section, the TBA is contextualised within the post-Seven Years’ War reconstruction efforts. Educational entities have been established since the 18th century to cater to the technological needs driven by economic and societal imperatives. Although the TBA was not established as an instantaneous response to demand, its essentiality became evident as machine manufacturing gained prominence.

TBA educational content: curriculum analysis

Next, we scrutinise the TBA’s curricula, which are structured according to requirements, and explore the evolution of course offerings in alignment with societal needs at the time. We also investigate the scientific knowledge and skills imparted to students in the TBA. The TBA’s curricular structure underwent continuous revisions to align it with the evolving knowledge and skill requirements of the era.²² Curriculum analysis has been the principal focus of prior research and educational historiographies. Engineering education curricula exhibited diversity across institutions; nevertheless, two trends emerged, characterised as ‘science-oriented’ and ‘practice-oriented’ (Harwood, 2006, p. 53). The pedagogical content of engineering education was shaped by the governing ministry of each nation or German territory, in line with the vision of the institution’s founders, and prevailing demands of society. In the latter half of the 19th century, the domain of mechanical engineering in Dresden was closely linked to experimental methodologies.

The first 25 years of the TBA’s history is chronicled in ‘Die Königliche Polytechnische Schule (Technische Bildungsanstalt) Zu Dresden Während der Ersten 25 Jahre Ihrer’ (TBA25), a publication commemorating the 25th anniversary of the TBA.²³ Table 1 presents the annual allocation of hours across all courses during the first 25 years of the TBA’s history, categorised into four segments: Technische Haupt- und Hülfswissenschaften (Technical main and auxiliary sciences), Praktisch-mechanische Arbeiten (practical mechanical work), Übungen (exercises), and Sprachen (languages).²⁴ Notably, numerous hours were dedicated to practical mechanical work and exercises. While listing all the courses offered is complex, we include an illustrative example of courses related to drawing, comprising 96 h (55.8%) of 172 h of exercises in the initial four years²⁵ after the opening of the TBA. The curriculum encompassed freehand drawings, as well as machinery and architectural structures drawings. Modelling and embossing accounted for the next largest proportion at 48 h (27.9%). Practical mechanical work accounted for 196 h across the four years, denoting hands-on training in machine manufacturing within the workshop. The theoretical aspect of the curriculum was relatively minimal—a mere 75 h over the same four-year span—covering subjects, such as physics, mineralogy, mathematics, numerical operations, chemistry, bookkeeping, and other fundamental natural sciences.²⁶ Evidently, the early TBA curriculum was predominantly focused on practice-oriented aspects.²⁷

Table 1. Percentage of classes offered in the first 25 years of the TBA’s operation.

Year	Technische Haupt- und Hülfswissenschaften (technical main and auxiliary sciences)	Praktisch-mechanische Arbeiten (practical-mechanical work)	Übungen (exercises)	Sprachen (languages)
1828/29	12	49	38	2
1831/32	22	49	47	10
1832/33	29	60	52	15
1834/35	34	60	59	16
1835/36	51	60	85	19
1837/38	57	60	90	24
1838/39	80	42	133	34
1843/44	110	60	165	43
1848/49	134	60	175	62
1852/53	119	–	142	32

Source: TBA25, p.26

As shown in Table 1, the duration allocated to each course increased progressively over time. However, the number of hours of practical mechanical training remained constant. In the academic year 1848/49, the peak of the number of hours offered, technical main and auxiliary sciences was ∼11.2 times larger than it was in 1828/29. Further, exercises increased by 4.6 times and language instruction increased by 31.0 times, compared with those in 1828/29. Moreover, the course content was continually refreshed. During the first half of the 19th century, the varied number of courses under Technische Haupt- und Hilfswissenschaften never surpassed those of exercises; with the inclusion of Praktisch-mechanische Arbeiten, TBA was largely a ‘practice-oriented’ institution. This orientation reflects the underlying aim of priming students to participate in an industrialised society.

Although the curriculum included practical training in machinery manufacturing, the burgeoning railway industry, pivotal to German industrialisation, was not explicitly reflected in class titles, such as ‘locomotive manufacturing’ or ‘railroad construction’. Nevertheless, as indicated in Table 2, the expansion of railway networks in Saxony and the augmentation of steam locomotives and wagons advanced consistently, except for the first part of 1850s, signifying the progression of this sector. This trend underscores the escalating societal need for engineers versed in railway construction and locomotive production at the time. Assumedly, the knowledge required to become a railroad engineer was taught effectively at the TBA.²⁸ For instance, the swift expansion of Saxony’s railway industry necessitated specialised training in geodesy. Training in surveying, which at that time was still a manual process, encompassed skills, such as topographical surveying and the delineation of architectural blueprints (Gräfe, 2017, p. 28.). Post-1832, surveying exercises (Feldmessen) were integral to the practical training of engineers in railway construction. Practical training in mechanical engineering, coupled with various drawing disciplines, provided since the inception of the school, has proven to be beneficial for producing locomotives. Varied drawing courses were available from the onset, including Freies Handzeichnen (freehand drawing), Geometrisches (freehand drawing), Zeichnen (drawing), Ornamentenzeichnen (Ornamental drawing), Situationszeichnen (Situation drawing), Maschinenzeichnen (Machine drawing), Architektonisches Zeichnen (Architectural drawing), and Ornamenten- und Musterzeichnen (Ornamental and pattern drawing), constituting a significant portion of the curriculum in 1848/49. These courses totalled to 74 out of 431 h dedicated to drawing disciplines.²⁹

Table 2. State of railroad construction in Saxony and manufacture of steam locomotives and trains .

Year	Length of railway (km)	Number of locomotives	Number of passenger wagons	Number of freight wagons
1837	14.0	4	23	1
1842	153.9	29	153	215
1847	330.6	58	223	1020
1852	520.0	111	354	2454
1857	562.1	153	358	4239
1862	716.7	218	470	6939
1867	966.8	326	687	10,164
1871	1102.5	416	933	12,618

Source: Kiesewetter, 2004b, p.464

An examination of the historical evolution of the curriculum reveals that the initial pedagogical approaches were predominantly practical, with scientific education occupying a modest portion, both in breadth and depth. The presence of TBAs, with their practice-oriented educational frameworks, partially contributed to addressing the societal requisites of burgeoning industries post the 19th century, specifically within the realms of machine building and railroad construction.

Analysis of the post-graduation career paths of students enrolled in the TBA

Professional engagements of students enrolled in the TBA

Did students who assimilated the knowledge and proficiencies discussed in the previous section truly facilitate the industrial advancement of Saxony? This analysis aims to ascertain the degree to which educational endeavours have shaped definitive occupational selections and to evaluate the contributions of these graduates to the industrial advancement of Saxony. The volume ‘TBA25’ compiles comprehensive data on the trajectories of alumni within the initial 25 years after their graduation: the year they completed their studies, their names, graduated course, residence, profession, and employment location. Accordingly, we analyse the professional engagements of these alumni during the first 25 years following the TBA’s opening to ascertain whether graduates secured employment in the secondary sector. We also explore the geographical regions in which they were employed to evaluate their actual contributions to Saxon industrialisation. This allows us to examine the potentiality of a ‘brain drain’—securing post-graduation employment in other regions or beyond the German-speaking territories.

Table 3 lists the professions of students who either graduated from or left the TBA by 1853. Contrary to the general results by König (1998), several students secured positions in the manufacturing sector. While employment trends varied according to the education degree, the engineer role was significantly predominant, with 82 of 246 students (33.3%) occupying such roles. This table presents engineers with executive roles, such as chief engineers and machine misters, as well as general engineers, mechanics, technicians, machine builders, machine fabricators, fitters, and product specialists, including railway engineers and technicians, and other infrastructure builders and their assistants. Furthermore, draughtsmen were pivotal in the manufacturing sector, while surveyors were essential to railway construction. Factory owners and managers predominantly managed operations in the secondary industry or held executive roles within such enterprises; their involvement spans various sectors, including machinery and textile production.

Table 3. Occupations in which students who graduated or left the TBA were employed.

Occupational classification	Completing the practical mechanical course	Completing the full education course	Before completing upper division	After completing lower division
Factory owner	8	2	2	1
Factory manager	5	1	1	1
Engineer	19	31	25	6
Draughtsman	1	4	–	–
Surveyor	–	1	–	–
Architect	–	–	2	6
Other manufacturing sector	3	2	1	4
Chemist	–	1	1	1
Teaching staff	3	16	8	5
Student	–	10	1	1
Agricultural sector	–	2	–	5
Insurance-related	1	3	1	–
Military-related	1	3	13	1
Accounting-related	–	3	1	2
Judge	–	–	–	1
Other service sector	–	2	2	–
Unknown	3	6	10	13
Total	44	87	68	47

Source: TBA25, pp. 45-52

Furthermore, several graduates pursued careers in academia or furthered their education at other institutions after leaving school. Among these, most served as instructors in mechanical engineering and the natural science courses, predominantly in institutions, such as Polytechnische Schule (e.g. the TBA) and Gewerbeschule. Moreover, many students continued their studies in natural sciences at educational institutions. Conversely, those who secured employment in the primary and tertiary sectors or public service, such as the military, were fewer in number than their counterparts in the secondary sector. However, when assessing the data by educational progression, nearly 20% of the students who left school before completing upper divisions secured positions in the military. Nonetheless, more than twice this number secured employment in the secondary industry sector.

This data can be summarised as follows: (1) the first 25 years of the TBA’s educational efforts were devoted to engineering education and training highly skilled individuals for various industrial sectors; (2) the TBA produced not only engineers but also educators in natural sciences, crucial for the advancement of future generations; (3) those with longer education periods were more likely to find employment in fields closely related to the machine-building industry; (4) conversely, those who departed from TBA early were more inclined towards careers in the military, service, or agricultural sectors; (5) overall, fewer TBA graduates were employed in the primary and tertiary industries, indicating that their roles significantly fostered the development of industrialisation and the secondary sector.

Employment domiciles of students enrolled in TBA

We also provide a detailed analysis of the employment domicile of students who were enrolled in the various courses (see Table 4). Table 4³⁰ presents the domicile before enrolment and during employment in 1853 for the practical mechanical course students at the TBA. First, all students enrolled in the practical mechanical course originated from Saxony. Conversely, in 1853, their employment varied geographically within Saxony (38.6%), other German-speaking territories (11.3%), and beyond the German-speaking territories (18.2%). Therefore, while all students originated from Saxony, their subsequent employment spanned a broad array of locales, extending beyond Saxony’s borders.

Table 4. Place of residence before enrolment and place of employment for students who completed the practical mechanical course.

Residence before enrolment		Place of employment in 1853
Dresden	19	Dresden	4
Chemnitz	3	Chemnitz	3
Other area of Sachsen	22	Other area of Sachsen	10
		Preußen	2
		Dessau	1
		Burgk	1
		Böhmen	1
		The US	5
		Manchester	1
		Switzerland	2
		Unknown	14

Source: TBA25, pp. 45-46

Notably, the time duration post-graduation until entering employment varied, encompassing individuals in the nascent and advanced stages of their professional journeys, as illustrated in Table 4. Appendix Figure 1 shows the residences of graduates for each five-year interval and their employment locations in 1853. Evidently, a consistent number of graduates found employment within Saxony across the five-year cohort. However, those with approximately a decade’s experience in the workforce—specifically post-1842 graduates, as per Appendix Figure 1—tended to promptly seek opportunities in other German-speaking territories or abroad. The propensity of these well-educated TBA alumni to venture outside Saxony potentially signified a ‘brain drain’ for the Saxon government.

Appendix Figure 1. Five-year residence–employment analysis by cohort in the practical mechanical course.

Source: TBA25, pp. 45-46.

Table 5 lists the residence and subsequent employment locales of graduates who completed their education at the TBA in 1853. Most of these students, (92.0%) originated from Saxony. There were, however, also students from other territories, including individual students from Weimar, Klitzchdorf, and Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach,³¹ as well as international students from Belgium, Warsaw, Romania, and Estonia. The institute provided a broad spectrum of post-graduation employment prospects. Moreover, there was a discernible trend towards employment diversification. While 71.3% of the students found employment within Saxony, this marked a notable decline of over 20%, compared to the enrolment period. Graduates who secured positions in other and outside German-speaking territories were seven and four, respectively.

Table 5. Place of residence before enrolment and place of employment for students who completed the full education course.

Residence before enrolment		Place of employment in 1853
Dresden	39	Dresden	16
Chemnitz	2	Chemnitz	1
Other area of Sachsen	39	Other area of Sachsen	45
Weimar	1	Preußen	1
Klitzchdorf	1	Stuttgart	1
Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach	1	Hannover	1
Belgien	1	Holstein	1
Warschau	1	Gera	1
Crossau (Rumania)	1	Biedenkopf	1
Estonia	1	Prag	1
		Belgium	1
		The US	1
		Australia	1
		Unknown	15

Source: TBA25, pp. 46-48

Analogous to Appendix Figures 1 and 2 illustrates that the diversification of employment regions became pronounced after 1842—in the final decade covered by the research. Notably, from 1842 onwards, numerous workers sought opportunities in other German territories, and from 1846, employment was also secured outside of Germany. While this talent emigration could be construed as brain drain, it may also indicate that the qualifications of TBA graduates gained recognition beyond Saxony’s borders. Given that engineering education institutions existed in the regions where these workers were employed, the graduates evidently possessed competencies that provided a competitive advantage over their peers from similar institutions.

Appendix Figure 2. Five-year residence–employment analysis by cohort in the teaching course.

Source: TBA25, pp. 46-48. *1: Weimar, Klitzchdorf, Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach, Belgien, Crossau (Rumania), and Estonia. *2: Gera, Biedenkopf, Prag, the U. S., and Australia.

Table 6 presents the domiciles of those who left TBA before completing their upper division class, along with their employment locations, from 1853. Most of these students (88.2%) originated from Saxony. The institution also attracted students from other regions, such as Munich, Hanover, Greifenberg, and Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach, as well as from international locales including Switzerland, Austria, and Odessa. Additionally, there was a discernible trend towards employment diversification post-study: 48.5% of the students secured positions within Saxony, a lower proportion compared to the aforementioned two courses; this figure rises to 71.7% when excluding the unknown data. Moreover, 13 graduates secured employment both within and beyond other German-speaking areas.

Table 6. Place of residence before enrolment and place of employment for students before completing the upper division of the course.

Residence before enrolment		Place of employment in 1853
Dresden	27	Dresden	9
Other area of Sachsen	33	Other area of Sachsen	24
München	1	Preußen	3
Hannover	2	Baiern	1
Greifenberg	1	Austria	1
Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach	1	Hungary	1
Switzerland	1	Prag	2
Austria	1	Böhmen	1
Odessa	1	The US	1
		Australia	2
		Hungary	1
		Unknown	22

Source: TBA25, pp. 48–50

Appendix Figure 3 shows that the diversification of origin and employment areas has occurred since 1847—within the last five years of the research period. There was no clear trend with respect to place of employment. It is likely that they left school before completing their advanced courses and, therefore, did not acquire much advanced knowledge. From Table 3, the students did not have access to advanced jobs, and it was very difficult to track their occupational histories.

Appendix Figure 3. Five-year residence–employment analysis by cohort before completing upper division.

Source: TBA25, pp. 48–50. *1: München, Hannover, Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach, Austria, and Odessa. *2: Baiern, Austria, Hungary, Prag, America, and Hungary.

Table 7 delineates the professional trajectories of students who completed their studies in the lower division. Consistent with the trends observed in other courses, a significant majority of enrolees hailed from Saxony. The post-graduation employment data, as presented in the historical materials, is less than ideal, partly attributable to the fact that these students completed only the lower division. Nevertheless, over 70% of graduates with known outcomes find employment in Saxony. Remarkably, a substantial number of graduates secured positions in the United States. As depicted in Appendix Figure 4, there is no discernible seasonal pattern in employment locations, and identifying any definitive trends in the enrolment data is challenging.

Appendix Figure 4. Five-year residence–employment analysis by cohort after completing lower division.

Source: TBA25, pp. 50-51.

Table 7. Place of residence before enrolment and place of employment for students who completed only the lower division course.

Residence before enrolment		Place of employment in 1853
Dresden	13	Dresden	2
Other area of Sachsen	29	Other area of Sachsen	15
Preußen	1	Preußen	1
Austria	1	The US	5
Holstein	1	Ceylon	1
England	1	Unknown	23
Ostindien	1

Source: TBA25, pp. 50-51

This analysis reveals the following. First, many students tended to have been residents of Saxony, especially Dresden. Second, the students were not limited to Saxon residents but included students from various areas, encompassing non-German-speaking territories. Third, post-graduation employment areas were more diverse than the pre-enrolment residential areas, illustrating a pattern of expansive professional mobility. Fourth, the graduates who secured employment outside of Saxony did not demonstrate a uniform preference for any specific country or region, reflecting the individualised nature of their professional development. This suggests that the graduates were equipped to explore and integrate into varied professional environments, both within and beyond Saxony.

Notably, some students secured employment in Saxony’s secondary industry. However, only a few of those engaged in the machine-building industry were employed. The evolution of the German machine-building sector from 1846 to 1861 was particularly noteworthy. Despite a reduction in the number of factories in Saxony, the workforce increased more than 3-fold, growing from 2250 to 7489 (Kiesewetter, 2004a, pp. 419–420). Within this context, the TBA produced only 130 secondary industry workers, including chemistry workers, in four courses between 1828 and 1853, as shown in Table 4. Although precisely quantifying this proportion is challenging, asserting that TBA constituted the primary source of engineers for the secondary industry is unfeasible.

Brain drain or an attractive labour market?

In this section, we re-examine the residential and employment patterns of historical figures, as discussed previously, through the lens of brain drain. Table 8 shows that A significant 77.9% (106 out of 136) of individuals employed in the secondary industry, those serving as natural science educators, and students who pursued further education at other institutions fell into Category (1). This suggests that the TBA played a substantial role in driving Saxony’s industrialisation. Concurrently, the significant proportion of students in Categories (2) and (3) implied that not all expertise cultivated at the TBA was reinvested in Saxony (25 out of 136 students). Indeed, (4) and (7) suggest an influx of human resources into Saxony, which enriched the local workforce. Offering a novel viewpoint, (5), (6), (8), and (9) include those who—having been educated in TBA and originating from outside Saxony—pursued careers in regions beyond Saxony. This indicates that, before any consideration for brain drain, these individuals did not contribute to Saxony’s industrialisation in terms of human capital.

Table 8. Residence–employment analysis of TBA alumni.

Residence-employment	Completing the practical mechanical course	Completing the teaching course	Before completing upper division	After completing lower division	Total
(1)	15	52	29	10	106
(2)	5	6	–	–	11
(3)	8	2	–	4	14
(4)	–	–	2	–	2
(5)	–	–	–	1	1
(6)	–	–	–	–	–
(7)	–	–	–	1	1
(8)	–	1	–	–	1
(9)	–	–	–	–	–

Source: TBA25, pp. 45–52.

Table 8 uses the notations (1) through (9) to denote the following. (1) Students are residents of Saxony and obtain jobs in Saxony, indicating the cultivation of local talent and professional success within the region. (2) Graduates from Saxony who secure employment in other German-speaking territories and (3) those from Saxony securing employment outside German-speaking territories denote the emigration of skilled individuals from Saxony to other German-speaking territories and beyond, respectively, illustrating instances of brain drain. (4) Graduates from other German-speaking territories securing employment in Saxony, other German-speaking territories, and outside German-speaking territories are represented by (4), (5), and (6), respectively. Finally, graduates from outside German-speaking territories securing employment in Saxony, other German-speaking territories, and outside of German-speaking territories are denoted by (7), (8), and (9), respectively.³²

Answering the question on what professions those who sought employment outside Saxony engaged in, Table 9 elucidates the vocations of individuals employed beyond Saxony’s borders. Notably, all participants from the practical mechanical course, as well as a considerable number from other courses, secured employment within the secondary industry. Beyond manufacturing, some alumni became educators in natural sciences, significantly contributing to the industrialisation of their respective regions of employment. This suggests that the TBA’s educational outcomes extended their relevance beyond Saxony. Conversely, there were no placements in the primary industry and only a few in the tertiary sector. However, the migration of skilled individuals on a substantial scale cannot be overlooked.

Table 9. Those who have worked in a foreign country after leaving the TBA (TBA25, 45–52).

Occupational classification		Completing the practical mechanical course	Completing the teaching course	Before completing upper division	After completing lower division
Secondary industry	Factory owner	3	–	1	–
	Factory manager	1	1	–	–
	Engineer	8	6	8	2
	Draughtsman	1	–	–	–
	Architect	–	–	–	1
	Other manufacturing sector	–	–	–	2
Education and training	Teaching staff	–	2	1	–
	Student	–	–	–	1
Tertiary industry	Military–related	–	–	1	–
	Judge	–	–	–	1
	Unknown	–	1	2	–

The selection of these career trajectories can be ascribed to the burgeoning expansion of the machine-building and railway industries across both German-speaking and non-German-speaking regions. As early as 1846, Saxony was home to a notably high count of diminutive factories: 232 factories, compared to 131 in Prussia, 14 in Bavaria, and 2 in Thuringia in the same year, and only 30 in Hannover, even in 1861 (Kiesewetter, 2004b, p. 419). This proliferation signalled the ascent of the machine-building industry in Saxony and the broadening of its market and gave rise to an environment rife with competition. Individuals with advanced education may have embraced the challenge of establishing ambitious enterprises in untapped markets—a ‘blue ocean’ of new entrepreneurial endeavours. In German-speaking territories, linguistic commonalities presented a low entry barrier and offering the potential to initiate businesses at lower transaction costs.

The more ambitious ones advanced to England, the cradle of the Industrial Revolution; the United States and Belgium, who advanced industrialisation forward; Switzerland; Australia; and even to India.³³ TBA graduates contributed to industrialisation in various parts of the world, based on the technologies they brought with them.

Conclusion: the contribution of engineering education to industrialisation

This study critically analyses the role of technical education institutions in the 19th century Kingdom of Saxony and their contributions to the era’s early industrialisation, examining the impact of such education on Saxony’s industrial development and the subsequent emigration of skilled workers. The founding of the TBA was integral to equipping the region with a highly skilled and knowledgeable workforce, in line with the industrial policies designed for the post-Seven Years’ War recovery in the late 18th century. TBA alumni secured roles within industries that directly correlated with their training, notably in machine and railway construction, bolstering Saxony’s industrial progression. Before the inception of the TBA, specialised technical instruction for these sectors was non-existent in the region. The TBA provided a curriculum with a strong practice-oriented approach, striving to nurture professionals who are adept in practical skills to meet the rising demands of an evolving industrial society.

While the TBA succeeded in producing highly skilled personnel, a critical assessment revealed that their overall numbers were insufficient to comprehensively underpin Saxony industrialisation. Notably, a significant number of graduates secured employment in the manufacturing sector. Moreover, several alumni contributed to the dissemination of knowledge as educators in natural sciences, possibly a positive externality of their education at the TBA. Employment beyond the secondary industry, including military roles, was limited, underscoring the efficacy of practice-oriented instruction in practical settings. However, the notable production of highly skilled individuals did not reach a magnitude that could singularly sustain a broad societal shift towards industrialisation. Although these individuals certainly attained recognition as factory managers, supervisors, and adept technicians, the scope of this study does not extend to a full exploration of how their expertise was propagated within the workforce, owing to the constraints of the historical material available.

This study assessed the influence of technical education on the industrial evolution of Saxony and the migration of human capital. Initially, the inception and governance of TBA were pivotal in promoting Saxony’s industrialisation by providing the region with highly skilled and knowledgeable workers. TBA alumni secured employment in industries—such as machine construction and railway development—that are intimately linked to the region’s growth, bolstering these sectors. Concurrently, there was an outflow of talent from Saxony to other regions encompassing both German-speaking and non-German-speaking areas. This exodus can be attributed to burgeoning opportunities in the machinery manufacturing sector, which offered a landscape of relatively lower competition than Saxony, thus encouraging highly educated professionals to seek prospects abroad. Ultimately, while the TBA’s education underpinned Saxony’s industrial advancement, its impact extended beyond regional confines, contributing to the global technical workforce. This reflects the fact that technical education is not solely a response to local demand, but also a significant contributor to the international dynamics of human resource allocation. This study represents a significant contribution to the historiography of technology as it re-evaluates the regional and international imports of technological education.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 23K12512.

Notes on contributors

Seiji Horii

Seiji Horii is a lecturer at Chuo Gakuin University in the faculty of commerce, Japan. He had five years of teaching experience. He got a PhD in economics at Kobe University, Japan and see his researchmap(https://researchmap.jp/s_horii). His main research interests include economic history, German economic history, industrial promotion policy, technology development, and technology education.

Notes

1 In Prussia, there is a close connection between the engineers’ education and industrialisation. Numerous graduates were employed in the secondary industry (Lundgreen, 1975, pp. 77–78). Moreover, the high standard of scientific and technical instruction in these institutions contributed to Germany’s economic power (Pombo & Ramirez, 2002, p. 3). Furthermore, ‘education had a significant effect on aggregate industrialisation in the Industrial Revolution in Prussia’ (Becker et al., 2009, p. 26). However, in France ‘only a small proportion was active within production and design in the mechanical industry’ (Ahlström, 1978, p. 75).

2 For example, Bradford Parkinson of the GPS invention and Shuji Nakamura of LED, who won both awards, are from engineering universities.

3 As an exception, the Berliner Gewerbe Institut in Prussia stated that most of its graduates went into mechanical engineering or metallurgy-related professions. In general, in Pruisen, ‘there had been a strong and active tradition of giving importance to science, technical skills, and education’ (Focacci & Perez, 2022, p. 4).

4 Undeniably, there is a spillover effect.

5 The TBA is in English Technical Educational Institute in Dresden.

6 Today’s Technical University can be traced back to the Technical Technische Bildungsanstalt in 1828, which operated as the Königlich Sächsische Polytechnische Schule from 1851 and the Königlich Sächsisches Polytechnikum from 1871. In 1890, the status was raised to Königlich Sächsischen Technischen Hochschule, which was granted the right to award doctorates in 1900 and became a Technischen Universität in 1961 (Munke, 2020, pp. 162–163; Scharlau, 2013, pp. 71–72).

7 The reconstruction of Electoral Saxony after the end of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) is known as Rétablissement. For more information on the Rétablissement, see Schlechte (1958) and Schirmer (2000) for excellent studies.

8 In previous studies, the focus was often on faculty who taught at the TBA and the collections assembled at the school. On Hanns Bruno Geinitz, who took geology and mineralogy, his teaching accomplishments at the TBA were presented (Ullrich et al., 2014). For geodesy lectures, collections and faculty for classes and exhibits in TBA were discussed (Mauersberger, 2010). Some studies have examined the composition of the mechanical engineering collections assembled by the TBA between 1851 and 1872 (Mattern, 2022). Certainly, collections and faculty are important educational elements, but from the perspective of contributing to the industrialisation of educational institutions, the analysis of the career paths and that of graduates should be a top priority.

9 The Seven Years’ War revolved around Prussia and Austria, with Saxony participating alongside its ally, Austria. Owing to its location between Prussia and Austria, Saxony became one of the main battlegrounds of the Seven Years’ War, and many battles were fought on Saxon land. The war was extremely costly, and the population was reduced (Buck, 1996, p. 37).

10 It is in English General Academy of Arts for Painting, Sculpture, Copperplate Engraving and Architecture.

11 It is in English Freiberg Mining Academy.

12 It is in English Royal Saxon Forestry Academy.

13 Although not a widely known school as was the case during the 18th century, the Gewerbzeichenschule, established in Chemnitz, provided young men who wished to enter a profession with training in drawing, modelling, and drafting, which is necessary for their vocation. The training occurred after the end of the apprenticeship, from 7:30 to 9:30 in the evening (HSSKS, 922). Another school, the Spitzenklöppelschule, was founded in Neustädtel in Schneeberg in 1814, although information regarding its initial education is scant. As of 1900, there were 29 such schools in Saxony, and the technique of bobbin lace knitting production had likely been introduced.

14 HSSKS, p. 915.

15 Ibid., p. 906.

16 ‘Prize competition encouraged the public to find solutions for industrial, academic, or social issues, and the amount of prize money to be paid to the innovator was announced in advance’ (Horii, 2023, p. 89).

17 It is not clear what education was provided at this institution.

18 PA1788, p. 15.

19 For the development of Saxon machine building industry, see Forberger (1958, pp. 153–206), Kiesewetter (2004a, pp. 195–211, 2004b, pp. 389–422).

20 Ökonomische Gesellschaft im Königreiche Sachsen was a scholarly society dedicated to social problems of economics and agriculture.

21 Ibid., p. 27.

22 The details are too complicated to be presented here. The purpose of this study is not to clarify the developmental history of the school, but to examine its contribution to industrialisation.

23 TBA25 was published in conjunction with the school’s 25th anniversary celebrations to provide a detailed view of the initial expectations of the school and the changes and history of the organisation. TBA25 includes the following information: (1) compilation of education plans; (2) overview of the composition of the teaching staff and the changes within it; (3) list of topics covered in the Easter programmes; (4) the library and its use; (5) compilation of the awards granted; (6) overview of tuition fees paid and waived; (7) overview of financial support approved for pupils; (8) compilation of the expenses incurred for TBA; (9) frequency overview; (10) list of alumni; (11) statute of the travel grant fund. This historical material is indispensable in examining the reality of the first 25 years of TBA.

24 This differs from the number of hours required to graduate.

25 This represents the four-year period from the first year of the TBA’s establishment until the first students graduated.

26 TBA25, pp. 20–21.

27 As technology became increasingly scientific in the 19th century, TBA’s educational materials took on a more abstract character and began to serve as a visualisation for theoretical issues (Mauersberger, 2010, p. 22).

28 In fact, the curriculum of the 1862/63 advanced course was divided into four parts: (A) For future factory owners, factory directors, or engineers in mechanical engineering or a branch of mechanical engineering; (B) For future engineers in road, railroad, bridge, or hydraulic engineering and surveying engineers; (C) For future factory managers or factory directors in a branch of chemical engineering and the department; and (D) For those who wish to devote themselves to teaching in the fields of mathematics, natural sciences, and technology (JB1863). Courses specialising in railway and infrastructure development were being created. This was an effort to respond to changes in society.

29 Additionally, excursions to other parts of the country and abroad were considered an important educational tool. Exceptional students were given bonuses, awards, and medals in recognition of their achievements.

30 In the richest case, the alumni data included the following information: year of graduation (year of leaving school), name, place of residence prior to enrolment, occupation/company name after graduation, place of employment as of 1853, diplomas, and death status. However, not all information was necessarily included; in the fewest cases, only name and pre-admission residence were listed. Here, we must be cautious about this study’s method of tabulating the place of employment. Some cases were included in the list of names where the region of employment was not clearly indicated. For cases in which no region was listed, the following tabulations were made: (1) those who died at least as of 1853 were treated as working in the region in which they finally died; (2) for railway workers, school teachers, and military personnel with which Saxony was associated, we classified them as ‘Other Area of Sachsen’, as they were considered to be working in Sachsen; (3) if the employment area could not be inferred from their occupation or other information, we treated them as unknown.

31 There was one enrolment from each region.

32 In Table 8, in terms of the contribution of the secondary industry to Saxony, we limited our analysis to the following occupations: factory owners; factory managers; engineers; craftsmen; surveyors; architects; chemists; other manufacturing sectors. Teaching staff and students were analysed in terms of their contribution to knowledge transmission in the secondary industry.

33 Those employed in Ceylon had their residence in East India prior to enrolment.

Historical materials

Die Königliche Polytechnische Schule (Technische Bildungsanstalt) Zu Dresden Während der Ersten 25 Jahre Ihrer.

Preis = Aufgaben, so auf höchsten Besehl Ihro Churfürstl. Durchl. Zu Sachsen zur Aufmunterung des Nahrungsstandes auf das gegenwärtige, und die folgenden Jahre 1789, 1790 und 1791 ausgesetzt worden sind, und von Er. Churfürstl. Landes = Oeconomie = Manufaktur = und Commercien = Deputation bekannt gemacht werden. (PA1788)

Jahresbericht über den 36. Cursus der königlichen polytechnischen Schule und über den 27. Cursus der königlichen Baugewerkenschule zu Dresden. 1862–1863, Dresden, 1863 (JB1863).