The role of language in economic activities in the Borobudur area: a linguistic landscape study

Abstract

The presence of linguistic diversity in the Borobudur area’s public spaces shows a connection between linguistic, social, and economic interests. Linguistic landscape (LL) research in public spaces is important because of the widespread use of foreign language texts in public spaces. It is feared that this could affect the preservation of Indonesian and Javanese as local languages. This research aims to reveal the distribution of language diversity and its relationship with socioeconomic interests at the Balai Ekonomi Desa (Balkondes) ‘Village Economic Center’ in Borobudur District, Magelang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. This research is of the descriptive-qualitative type. Data was collected using interviews, observation, photography, and documentation methods. Data collection was carried out using a purposive sampling technique. The data included 168 photos of public boards in the Borobudur Balkondes area as research subjects. Blommaert & Maly’s linguistic landscape theory analyses data on power relations in an area and the distribution of texts in public spaces. According to this study’s findings, the distribution of language signs is 1.2% multilingual, 14.9% bilingual, and 83.9% monolingual. These results show that the Borobudur area still maintains Indonesian as a national identity and Javanese as a regional identity. The Indonesian national language dominates the public area. The existence of Balkondes in the Borobudur area, supported by various language signs, is useful in boosting the local community’s economy.

Keywords:

• balkondes
• Borobudur
• economic
• language sign
• linguistic landscape

Reviewing Editor:

• Jeroen van de Weijer, College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China

Subjects:

• Art & Visual Culture
• Photography
• Visual Arts
• Media Communication
• Cultural Studies
• Language & Linguistics

1. Introduction

In Borobudur’s public spaces, numerous languages are used. The multilingual and multiethnic population and the presence of visitors influence this diversity. There are Indonesian, Javanese, and English names in public spaces. In addition to Javanese-Indonesian, Indonesian-Javanese, Indonesian-English, English-Indonesian, and Indonesian-Javanese-English, regional characteristics of the Javanese language are sometimes emphasized.

Related to this, this research reveals the distribution of texts or language used in the public space of Balkondes in the Borobudur area, power relations, and the role of language in public space in the community’s economic activities. This problem is analyzed using the linguistic landscape (LL) theory from Blommaert and Maly (2014) regarding the presence of texts and their distribution in public spaces, as well as power relations in an area. LL’s research on the role of language in public spaces in the Balkondes area of Borobudur is very limited.

The latest research on Linguistic Landscape (LL) was conducted by Artawa et al. (2023). They examined the language combinations on restaurant signs in Ubud, Bali, Indonesia. They found three languages used for communication, namely Balinese, Indonesian, and English. Among these languages, English is predominant in public spaces. The difference between our research and the study conducted by Artawa et al. lies in the locus and research focus. Similar research that focuses on how the influence of the LL reflects that community economic activity affects language use in hotel public signs in Karawang, Indonesia, was conducted by Sariah et al. (2023). The findings of this study show that Karawang, one of the industrial cities dominated by expatriates in Indonesia, has caused a shift in the linguistic landscape of hotel images in the region. The use of English also predominates in hotel public signs. This site (Indonesian) further supports English’s supremacy over other languages. However, both locations are influenced by the use of language in public places in Borobudur region as a cultural city visited by many tourists from various places must certainly brand the city’s distinctiveness as a cultural city characterized by Indonesia. Using language in public spaces around Borobudur can provide tourists with Indonesian culture as a selling point.

This research aims to reveal the use of languages, the distribution of texts in the Balkondes public space, and their relationship with the socioeconomic interests of the surrounding community using LL studies. Our research focuses on how language usage in public areas affects the local community’s economic activity in the Borobudur, Magelang region.

Previously, Erikha (2018) examined the LL situation on the main streets of the royal city of Yogyakarta. Erika found that the LL on these main streets serves informational and symbolic functions. As an informational function, road signs serve as markers of place and space. Within the realm of informational functions, Widiyanto’s (2019) research at the Radya Pustaka Museum also demonstrates that the LL in museums utilizes monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual signs to communicate information about historical objects. Related to LL in museums, Suari (2021) revealed that the language used in the Gedong Kirtya Museum also employs monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual signs for informational purposes. Meanwhile, the Balinese language serves the informational function of cultural tradition.

On the other hand, Dutch serves as an informational language to indicate that the Gedong Kirtya Museum was a building in the Dutch colonial era. Concerning the function of monolingual use in LL as informational, Motschenbacher (2020) discusses the majority of monolingual signs in LL signpost gay associations in their native English language. They found that the practices of gay signage indicate high levels of intentionality and agency. They must combat heteronormativity, a pervasive and customary discourse. Furthermore, there were two language contests in LL at Jatinegara Station: Indonesian and English. In LL, it is used monolingually and bilingually. The function of LL in that place tends to be as an information guide (Khoiriyah & Savitri, 2021).

Sari and Savitri (2021) researched the linguistic landscape’s (LL) symbolic functions in Sidoarjo, specifically concerning the products and services offered in the area and the location of shops. Their research showed that the signs on products and services are symbols of ownership, identity, and regional origin. Parallel to Kumala et al. (2021) research findings, the Pasar Lama Tangerang District symbolizes cultural diversity. The linguistic landscape of Pasar Lama encompasses Chinese, Indonesian, Sundanese, Pali, and other foreign languages. Moreover, the Benteng Chinese community managed to endure and assimilate with its surroundings’ cultural and social aspects.

Furthermore, Andriyanti (2021) researched LL and its symbolic functions. She analyzed signs on school signboards and their role in multimodal social semiotics within the social signage context. The findings of her study suggest that LL in schools symbolizes the relationship between signmakers and recipients and constitutes a multifaceted social construct.

Several studies outlined above indicate that language in its written form provides information to us through various signs in public spaces. We may encounter street signs, texts on mailboxes, or nameplates in residential areas, but there are also numerous signs on commercial streets. The placement of these signs undoubtedly considers economic aspects. These signs inform us about the location of stores or the types of products that can be purchased at those locations (Cenoz et al., 2009). According to the American Signmakers Association, a good sign for a business is evidently worth a lot of money (Claus, 2002).

There are several reasons why signs hold significance for economists. Firstly, they convey information, addressing issues arising from information asymmetry. Secondly, signs contribute to reducing transaction costs. For instance, a sign can help minimize upfront transaction expenses by providing valuable information. Thirdly, signs act as a ‘signal’ for international brands, offering a means to convey a reputation that may not be easily established through direct interactions. Fourthly, signs serve as indirect advertising, aiding in customer attraction. The design, language, font type, and information displayed on a sign can captivate customers, similar to traditional advertising methods. Lastly, the choice of language on signs in multilingual environments reveals the preference structure of agents for that language, which can be assessed using valuation techniques to inform policy development. Furthermore, if appropriately designed, a sign serves as an economic tool that can create incentives to maximize market efficiency (Ramello, 2006).

Cenoz et al. researched LL from an economic perspective. Gorter (Cenoz et al., 2009) delves into the interrelationship between the linguistic landscape (LL) and the Netherlands market, where Dutch is the official language. The main focus of his research is on the non-market value of LL. Cenoz and Gorter try to use an economic model to study LL, focusing on the diversity of languages in the area and avoiding making definite conclusions about specific definitions and future research paths. Meanwhile, Onofri et al., the influence of LL on language selection through an econometric analysis, investigated shopping streets in San Sebastián, Spain, and Ljouwer, the Netherlands. Their findings bolster previous studies indicating that multilingualism and language preference are individual and societal predilections and that the framework of societal language preferences precedes the formulation of pertinent language and social policies (Onofri et al., 2008).

In Indonesia, the people of Pontianak City have a relatively high awareness of using Indonesian in public spaces when carrying out economic activities (Purwanto & Filia, 2020). In Surakarta, a similar situation can be observed. Approximately 90% of the shops follow the Indonesian government’s proper naming conventions and guidelines. However, some businesses in the central business district still use foreign languages for their names (Dasuki, 2015), unlike the case with the use of Indonesian in the economic realm in Pekanbaru. Informatively and symbolically, it shows that Indonesian language use in Pekanbaru’s public spaces is fading with the increasing use of foreign languages (Fatmahwati A, 2018).

The language regulation in Indonesia is stated in Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 24 of 2009, covering Flags, Languages, Symbols, and National Anthem. Article 38, namely Indonesian, must be used in public signs, road signs, public facilities, banners, and other information tools that are public services. Next, the use of Indonesian can be accompanied by local and/or foreign languages. Foreign tourists relatively frequently visit the Borobudur area, so a foreign language is also used in public spaces, namely English. The choice of a foreign language makes it easier for tourists to understand information, making it more attractive for tourists to communicate when making transactions. The choice improves the community’s economy because there is no language barrier. Article 40, regulations concerning the requirement to use Bahasa Indonesia in various contexts must be implemented. These include official state documents, memorandums of understanding or agreements, national or international forums, official communications within the government and private sector, and names of buildings and roads in Indonesia. Based on the regulations, Indonesian public spaces must be in Indonesia. In other words, the rules for the use of language in the Indonesian language, as a multilingual society, must use the Indonesian language in communication media. Therefore, the use of Indonesian in public spaces is mandatory under Indonesian law. The use of Indonesians in public places is expected to promote Indonesia and support the socioeconomic status of Indonesians (Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, 2011).

Based on some of these research results, LL’s study regarding the role of language in the economic activities of the Borobudur people will complete the existing research. It can be an additional reference to expand insight.

This research also provides information that the language landscape is not only the identity of a community of speakers but can also help the economy of the surrounding community. Blommaert & Maly’s LL theory was used to analyze the data. It is argued that the government, the private sector, and individuals produced texts. These texts are used in public spaces in multilingual areas. These texts are distributed within certain populations and communities by considering interaction patterns in society to identify power relations in an area (Blommaert & Maly, 2014).

2. Literature review

2.1. Villages and Balkondes in Borobudur

Borobudur is one of the 21 sub-districts in Magelang Regency. Borobudur District has 20 villages. The names of these villages are Bigaran, Borobudur, Bumiharjo, Candirejo, Giripurno, Giritengah, Karanganyar, Karangrejo, Kebonsari, Kembanglimus, Kenalan, Majaksingi, Ngadiharjo, Ngargogondo, Sambeng, Tanjungsari, Tegalarum, Tuksongo, Wanurejo, and Wringinputih. Borobudur is home to the world-famous Borobudur Temple. The temple is a popular destination for domestic and international visitors.

In addition, there is a Balai Ekonomi Desa ‘Village Economic Center’ (Balkondes) at Borobudur, which has the concept of a tourist village with beautiful rural and mountain views. The Balkondes provide lodging, cafes, meeting rooms, special foods, handicrafts, and sometimes arts. This Balkondes is one of the initiatives made by Badan Usaha Milik Negara (BUMN) and the local village government to develop the people’s economy.

This Balkondes is one of the distinguishing features of the Borobudur area. With this, the village’s local economy is expected to be enhanced.

Balkondes names tend to be taken from village names, for example, Balkondes Borobudur; Balkondes Chocolate Ndeso Bigaran, Bigaran; Balkondes Bumiharjo; Balkondes Candirejo; Balkondes Giripurno; Balkondes Giritengah; Balkondes Karanganyar; Balkondes Karangrejo; Balkondes Kebonsari; Balkondes Kembanglimus; Balkondes Kenalan; Balkondes Majaksingi; Balkondes Ngadiharjo; Balkondes Ngargogondo; Balkondes Sambeng; Balkondes Tegalarum; Balkondes Tuksongo; Balkondes Wanurejo; and Balkondes Wringinputih. However, there is also a name for Balkondes derived from something other than the name of the village in which Balkondes is situated, namely Balkondes Duta Menoreh, located in Tanjungsari Village.

2.2. Linguistic landscape

Landry and Bourhis (1997) suggest that LL refers to the language used in a public space. LL is related to situations and facts in written language in an area, place, or social sign. Types of signs in LL include public street signs, billboards, street names, place names, commercial store signs, and public signs on government buildings. Furthermore, it was argued that LL has an informational and symbolic function. In its informational function, language is a marker of the speaking community’s territory and a differentiator from other population areas with different languages. In its symbolic function, language is related to the local community’s identity. There are categories of LL elements that are under the control of government policies and those that individuals, associations, or business actors produce. According to them, there are six types of signs in the LL: ‘ public street signs’, ‘billboards’, ‘street names’, ‘place names’, ‘commercial shop signs’, and ‘public signs on government buildings’.

According to Gorter (2006), the meaning of LL can include language history. LL represents identity in a textual format in public space and cultural globalization. Furthermore, it is stated that the LL study focuses on analyzing language signs used and their meaning (Grishaeva, 2015). Shohamy and Gorter (2009) distinguish LL signs into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. Public authorities issue top-down LL signs, including public places, notices, and street names. Bottom-up LL signs are issued by individual social actors, such as shop and business owners, and include store names, businesses, and personal advertisements. Backhaus (2006) argues that language signs in public spaces are natural.

Sign research in LL studies analyzes the relative visibility and significance of language, the process of authorship, and policy implications (Nash, 2016). LL intersects professional and social interests (Duizenberg, 2020). LL is synonymous with commercial signs that influence society (Gaho et al., 2022). According to Blommaert (2013), there are three categories of signs: permanent signs, such as street names, shop names, and street signs; temporary (event-related) signs, such as advertisements; and noise, referring to a short time, such as police lines or road work signs.

2.3. Linguistic landscape and economic

This article will examine the economic aspect of the environment that shapes the linguistic landscape. The use of language as a tool in economic activities significantly impacts its functionality, and this impact is observed in various forms, such as changes in language and vocabulary associated with economics. In his article ‘Economics of Language,’ Marschak (1965) highlights the importance of language as a means of communication in human economic activities. He notes that language also has economic attributes such as utility, value, cost, and benefit. The value of language in human economic activities relates to the relationship between the individual and society regarding communication. Language can influence the production, distribution, exchange, and consumption of economic activities through communication tools and cognitive thinking, institutional characteristics and resources, and achieve its economic function (Wang, 2021).

This research is LL research to study languages used in public spaces in the Borobudur area. This study focuses on who produced the text, the distribution of the text, and the role of language in the economic activities of the Borobudur community. The difference between this research and previous research is that this research examines the relationship between LL and the economic improvement of the community around Balkondes. This study has not been carried out in previous research.

3. Research methodology

This research is qualitative and descriptive. The data for this study consists of languages used in public spaces in the Borobudur District Area, Magelang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. The Borobudur region encompasses twenty villages. We collected the data by interviewing twenty respondents who reside around the Balkondes and Balkondes managers. The twenty respondents were managers of Balkondes and the surrounding community with the following criteria: age 30–50 years, male and female, and local residents.

Based on these interviews, information was obtained about the advantages of establishing Balkondes, namely absorbing the surrounding community’s workforce, attracting both domestic and foreign tourist interest, and improving the economy. Texts in public spaces in the Balkondes use Indonesian as the national language and foreign languages (mainly English) as the international language to support fluent communication. Using this language in public spaces makes it easier for tourists to communicate when making transactions. To preserve the local language (Javanese) and to make it more widely known, this language is still used in some of Balkondes’ public spaces.

In addition to interviews, we also conducted observations, photography, and documentation. Observation is data collection by entering the field, which begins with identifying the location, determining the data collection time, determining the design research, and recording or taking notes (Raco, 2010). During the observation phase, we observed social phenomena and recorded them. Based on these observations, it is known that in the public space in Balkondes there are texts in several languages, namely Indonesian, Javanese, and foreign.

We used photography techniques by photographing signboards in public spaces using a mobile phone camera. We photographed the texts written on signs in the Balkondes public space to obtain data. The texts written on the signs are the subject of research. Data collection was carried out using the purposive sampling technique. The data obtained were 168 photos taken in the Balkondes public space.

Furthermore, we documented, classified, and analyzed the data using Blommaert & Maly’s theory of text producers, text distributors, and power relations in LL in a region. The text producer is the person who creates the text, whether government or private. Text distribution is related to the relationship between social activities and community groups in an area, as well as how power relations play a role in the distribution of texts in public spaces. The collected data were classified based on monolingual texts (Indonesian, Javanese, English, Sanskrit), bilingual texts (Indonesian-English, English-Indonesian, Indonesian-Javanese, Javanese- Indonesian, English-Javanese), and multilingual texts (Javanese-Indonesian- English). Subsequently, the distribution of language signs, the functions of LL, and the role of language in the economic activities of the Borobudur community are explained based on this data.

This research also provides information that the language landscape is not only the identity of a community of speakers but can also help the economy of the surrounding community. According to Blommaert and Maly (2014), language is a tool for directly identifying society and indicating social change. A place in a public space that emphasizes the dominance of texts in a particular language can be dominated by social groups in their activities, such as social, economic, and political activities. These texts are distributed in certain communities so that an investigation is related to an area’s power relations.

Steps in analyzing data (Blommaert & Maly, 2014) include determining the pattern (top-down or bottom-up) of LL texts created by government or private institutions, noting the distribution of texts, determining the percentage or frequency of language types, and determining the dominant language used. The top-down pattern refers to official LL texts, meaning the text is created by the government, for example, the name of a board, street signs, or the name of a board. In the production of the text, the government referred to language policy. The bottom-up pattern refers to texts created by private institutions or individuals. The texts reflect the interests of their producers. Next, we analyzed the distribution of these texts in each Balkondes to find out the percentage and the dominant language used in each Balkondes.

4. Findings and discussion

The government, private sector, or individuals produce texts in the Balkondes public space. Government or private institutions use different language signs in Balkondes public spaces so that tourists can understand information easily. The distribution of these texts includes monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual texts. The fact follows the theory presented by Blommaert and Maly (2014), which states that LL texts are created by government or private institutions; the distribution of texts includes monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual. This analysis determines the percentage or frequency of texts in public spaces, language dominance, and text function.

The following research results are presented in tabular form, along with their discussion. The table contains the names of Balkondes, the number of language signs used in public spaces, percentages, and discussion. In this table, Balkondes is abbreviated as B.

Based on the data outlined in Table 1, the use of language signs in the Balkondes public space in the Borobudur area has the following types of sign percentages.

Table 1. Percentage of language signs in public space at each Balkondes of the Borobudur area.

No	Name Balkondes (B.)	Language Name and Number of Language Signs	Total Number Language Signs for Each Balkondes	Percentage Language Sign (%)
1	B. Borobudur	Indonesian (9)	21	42.8
		Javanese (3)		14.3
		English (6)		28.6
		Indonesian-English (3)		14.3
2	B. Coklat Ndeso	Indonesian-Javanese (1)	2	50
	Bigaran	English-Javanese (1)		50
3	B. Bumiharjo	Indonesia (12)	13	92.3
		English (1)		7.7
4	B. Candirejo	Indonesian (3)	4	75
		Indonesian-English (1)		25
5.	B. Giripurno	Indonesian-English (2)	4	50
		English-Indonesian (1)		25
		Indonesian-Javanese (1)		25
6.	B. Giritengah	Indonesian (1)	5	20
		Javanese (4)		80
7.	B. Karanganyar	Indonesian (7)	13	53.8
		Javanese (2)		15.4
		English (1)		7.7
		Indonesian-English (2)		15.4
		Indonesian-Jawa (1)		7.7
8.	B. Karangrejo	Indonesian (7)	22	31.8
		Javanese (4)		18.2
		English (3)		13.6
		Indonesian-English (2)		9.1
		Javanese-Indonesian (4)		18.2
		Javanese-Indonesian- Inggris (2)		9.1
9	B. Kebonsari	Indonesian (3)	6	50
		Javanese (1)		16.7
		English (1)		16.6
		Indonesia-English (1)		16.7
10.	B. Kembanglimus	Indonesian (7)	9	77.8
		English-Indonesia (2)		22.2
11.	B. Kenalan	Indonesian (8)	12	66.7
		Javanese (3)		25
		English (1)		8.3
12.	B. Majaksingi	Indonesian (5)	8	62.5
		English (3)		37.5
13.	B. Ngadiharjo	Indonesian (5)	7	71.4
		English (2)		28.6
14.	B. Ngargogondo	Indonesian (4)	5	80
		Javanese (1)		20
15.	B. Sambeng	–	–	–
16.	B. Sakapitu, Desa	Indonesian (3)	12	25
	Tegalarum	Javanese (8)		66.7
		Indonesian- Javanese (1)		8.3
17.	B. Tuksongo	Indonesian (5)	8	62.5
		Javanese (1)		12.5
		English (1)		12.5
		Sanskrit (1)		12.5
18.	B. Wanurejo	Indonesian (1)	3	33.3
		Javanese (1)		33.4
		Indonesian-English (1)		33.3
19.	B. Wringinputih	Indonesian (7)	8	87.5
		English (1)		12.5
20.	B. Duta Menoreh,	Indonesian (4)	6	66.6
	Desa Tanjungsari	Inggris (1)		16.7
		Javanese-Indonesian (1)		16.7
	Total number of language signs on all Balkondes		168

Table 2. Typ

es of signs.

Types of Signs	Number of Language Sign	Percentage (%)
Monolingual	141	83.9
Bilingual	25	14.9
Multilingual	2	1.2
Total	168	100

Language signs in the Borobudur public spaces consist of 83.9% monolinguals, 14.9% bilinguals, and 1.2% multilinguals.

Table 3. Monolingual public signs

Language	Number of Language Sign	Percentage (%)
Indonesian	91	64.5
Javanese	28	19.9
English	21	14.9
Sanskrit	1	0.7
Total	141	100

Monolingual public signs consist of Indonesian 64.5%, Javanese 19.9%, English 14.9, and Sanskrit 0.7%. It shows that Indonesian, the national language, occupies the highest position in the public space (Rohmah & Wijayanti, 2023). The following positions are available: Javanese, English, and Sanskrit. The following sequence is in Javanese, English, and Sanskrit. Given these data, it can be concluded that the ideology of the text’s producer prioritizes Indonesian as the national language and employs Javanese as the regional language to demonstrate its regional characteristics.

Table 4. Bilingual public signs.

Language	Number of Language Sign	Percentage (%)
Indonesian-English	12	48
English-Indonesian	3	12
Indonesian-Javanese	4	16
Javanese-Indonesian	5	20
English-Javanese	1	4
Total	25	100

Bilingual public signs consist of Indonesian-English 48%, English-Indonesian 12%, Indonesian-Javanese 16%, Javanese-Indonesian 20%, and English-Javanese 4%. Based on these data, it is known that Indonesian is still dominantly used in public spaces.

Table 5. Multilingual public signs.

Language	Total of Language Signs	Percentage (%)
Javanese-Indonesian-English	2	100
Total	2	100

Multilingual public signs obtained in public spaces are Javanese-Indonesian-English with two language signs, or 100%. It demonstrates that despite the presence of English, the Indonesian language and Javanese continue to be given utmost importance in public spaces.

1. Balkondes Borobudur

In the public space of the Borobudur Balkondes, 21 language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 42.8% Indonesian, 14.3% Javanese, 28.6% English, and 14.3% Indonesian-English. The data shows that Indonesian, as the national language, dominates public spaces in Balkondes Borobudur. Next, second place is English, and third place is Javanese, the local language.

For example, Indonesian language signs are the Waroeng Kopi Borobudur, ‘Borobudur Coffee Shop’. The waroeng writing follows the old Indonesian spelling rules. The current rule that applies is warung’shop’. The sound [oe] is changed to the sound [u]. The use of the old spelling is intended to bring out the atmosphere of the past. Javanese language signs, for example, sugeng rawuh, ‘welcome’. The names of homestays are used in English, namely Borobudur Homestay, Borobudur Single 5, Borobudur Couple 9, and Borobudur Family 10.

1. Balkondes Bigaran

In the Balkondes Bigaran public space, two language signs were obtained. The language sign is 50% Indonesian-Javanese and 50% English- Javanese. Indonesian-Javanese shows that text producers comply with government policies regarding language use in public spaces. As a local language, Javanese is still used alongside English as a foreign language to preserve it. An example of this Indonesian-Javanese sign is Coklat Ndesi Bigaran. Coklat Ndesi Bigaran is the name of one of the Balkondes in Bigaran Village. An example of an English-Japanese sign is ndeso homestay, ‘village homestays.’ The word ndeso, ‘village,’ is Javanese.

1. Balkondes Bumiharjo

In the public space of Balkondes Bumiharjo, 13 language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 92.3% Indonesian and 7.7% English. The data shows that the Indonesian language dominate the public space in Balkondes Bumiharjo. Text producers prioritize the use of Indonesian, which is the national language, rather than foreign languages. Examples of Indonesian signs are the phrase selamat datang ‘­welcome’; Balkondes Bumiharjo Kampoeng Dolanan; dapur ‘kitchen’; kasir ‘cashier’, egrang’stiles’; and dilarang membawa makanan/minuman dari luar Balkondes, ‘It is forbidden to bring food or drinks from outside the Balkondes’. Stilts are a type of traditional children’s game. An example of an English sign is an art shop.

1. Balkondes Candirejo

In the Balkondes Candirejo public space, four language signs were obtained. The language sign is 75% Indonesian and 25% Indonesian-English. There are three Indonesian signs (75%). Bilingual signs, namely Indonesian-English, are one (25%). Indonesian-language texts dominate in this public space. Examples of Indonesian signs are Balkondes Candirejo and Balkondes Desa Wisata Candirejo, ‘Candirejo Tourism Village Balkondes’. An example of an Indonesian-English sign is an assembly point.

1. Balkondes Giripurno

In the Balkondes Giripurno public space, four language signs were obtained. The language signs used are 50% Indonesian-English, 25% English- Indonesian, and 25% Indonesian-Javanese. There are two unnamed homestays. In this public space, text producers still use Indonesian in every language sign, even though there are other languages, namely Javanese or English, accompanying it. Examples of Indonesian-English signs are makanan tradisional- traditional food, warkop-coffee shop, penginapan-homestays, and paket wisata-tour packages. Warkop stands for a coffee shop. An example of an Indonesian-Javanese sign is the teras balkon tangi ngopi, ‘balcony terrace, wake up, drink coffee’.

1. Balkondes Giritengah

In the Balkondes Giritengah public space, five language signs were obtained. The language is 20% Indonesian and 80% Javanese. The use of Javanese text appears to be more dominant than Indonesian text. Using Javanese texts in public spaces aims to preserve the Javanese language. The Javanese language designates homestays, namely Djati Walang, Watoe Poetih, Soera Lodjo, and Gondho Poera. The names of the homestays are in Javanese to show their identity as Javanese people.

1. Balkondes Karanganyar

In the Karanganyar Balkondes public space, 13 language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 53.8% Indonesian, 15.4% Javanese, 7.7% English, 15.4% Indonesian-English, and 7.7% Indonesian-Javanese. In this public space, Indonesian is more dominant than Javanese or English. In order of importance, Indonesian is the national language, Javanese is the local language, and English is the foreign language. Examples of Indonesian signs are Pasar Budaya Desa Karanganyar and dapur ‘kitchen’. Pasar Budaya Desa Karanganyar is the name of one of the rooms in the Karanganyar Balkondes. An example of an Indonesian-English sign is Balkondes & Homestay Karanganyar. For naming homestays, Javanese is used, namely Genthong ‘crock’ 1, Genthong 2, and many more.

1. Balkondes Karangrejo

In the public space of the Karangrejo Balkondes, 22 language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 31.8% Indonesian, 18.2% Javanese, 13.6% English, 9.1% Indonesian-English, 18.2% Indonesian-Javanese, and 9.1% Indonesian-Javanese-English. Indonesian texts dominate more than Javanese or English. Indonesian always appears in the public space in every sign of language, whether bilingual or multilingual. Java script is used for several building names. An example of an Indonesian sign is the Balkondes Desa Karangrejo: parkir khusus motor tamu, ‘guest motorbike parking’. An example of an English sign is the Karangrejo homestay. An example of a Javanese sign is sugeng rawuh di Balkondes Karangrejo, ‘welcome to the Karangrejo Balkondes’.

1. Balkondes Kebonsari

In the Kebonsari Balkondes public space, six language signs were obtained. 50% Indonesian, 16.7% Javanese, 16.6% English, and Indonesian- English 16.7% are used in the language sign. These language signs show that Indonesian is more widely used than Javanese and English. The use of English considers the large number of tourists who visit Balkondes Kebonsari. An example of an Indonesian sign is the pendopo, ‘a large, open building, located at the front of the old Javanese house, and used for meetings’. An example of a Javanese sign is Waroeng Ndeso Kebonsari. An example of an Indonesian-English sign is the kasir, ‘cashier’.

1. Balkondes Kembanglimus

In the Balkondes Kembanglimus public space, nine language signs were obtained. In the language sign, 77.8% Indonesian is used, and 22.2% is English-Indonesian. The data shows that Indonesian dominates public space, while English is the second. The text producer does not use Javanese, which is the local language. An example of an Indonesian sign is resepsionis,’receptionist’’’; kapasitas 12 orang sholat di atas, ‘a capacity of 12 people prays above’. An example of an English-Indonesian sign starts at 15K: nasi ‘rice’, tahu ‘tofu’.

1. Balkondes Kenalan

In the public space of the Balkondes Kenalan, 12 language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 66.7% Indonesian, 25% Javanese, and 8.3% English. The data shows that the use of Indonesian is more dominant than Javanese, and Javanese is more dominant than English. An example of an Indonesian sign is jalur pengunjung, ‘the visitor path’ and gazebo. In naming the sign, the kings or descendants of the kings were used, namely Dalem R. Prawiro Gondo Kusumo, Dalem R. Ahmad Kusumo, and Dalem R. Prawiro Kusumo. In the naming of the homestay, the names Kenalan 1, Kenalan 2, and many more are used.

1. Balkondes Majaksingi

In the Balkondes Majaksingi public space, eight language signs were obtained. The language signs used are 62.5% Indonesian and 37.5% English. The data shows that Indonesian dominates over English. The text producer does not use Javanese, even though Javanese is the local language. An example of an Indonesian sign is selamat datang di Balkondes Majaksingi, ‘welcome to Balkondes Majaksingi’. In naming the homestay, English was used, namely Profesionalism 1, Profesionalism 2, and many more.

1. Balkondes Ngadiharjo

In the public space of Balkondes Ngadiharjo, seven language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 71.4% Indonesian and 28.6% English. This shows that Indonesian dominates public spaces. Text producers choose foreign languages, namely English, apart from Indonesian, to convey information. The sign of the Pendopo lasting language is used to show its Javaneseness. The word lasting is derived from Javanese.

1. Balkondes Ngargogondo

In the Balkondes Ngargogondo public space, five language signs were obtained. The language is 80% Indonesian and 20% Javanese. This shows that Indonesian signs dominate in public spaces. Javanese language signs appear less often than Indonesian. There is a building named Bale Gade. The name is formed from the Javanese bale, ‘place,’ and the English gade, ‘pawn’. The word gade is used because the Balkondes were built with the sponsorship of a pawnshop.

1. Balkondes Sambeng

Balkondes Sambeng is abandoned. There are no language signs in public places.

1. Balkondes Sakapitu, Tegalarum

In the Balkondes Sakapitu public space, 12 language signs were obtained. The language signs used are 25% Indonesian, 66.7% Javanese, and 8.3% Indonesian-Javanese. Javanese appears more often than Indonesian in these public spaces. An example of an Indonesian sign is jagalah kebersihan, ‘to keep clean’. Sakapitu is formed from saka, ‘pole,’ and pitu, ‘seven’. The pillar symbolizes a firm stance. The name contains the philosophy of the seven guidelines in Javanese society. The language sign is used to name homestays at Balkondes Sakapitu, namely Pituna Sentong, Pituduh Sentong, Pitulungan Sentong, Pitungan Sentong, Pitutur Sentong, Pituwas Sentong, and Pituhu Sentong. The word sentong means ‘room’ or ‘booth’. Pituna means no harm. Pituduh means to give instructions. Pitulungan means giving help. Pitungan means not lying. Pitutur means to give advice. Pituhu means to set an example. An example of an Indonesian-English sign is mohon alas kaki di lepas, kecuali tamu homestay, ‘asking for footwear to be removed, except for homestay guests.

1. Balkondes Tuksongo

In the Balkondes Tuksongo public space, eight language signs were obtained. The language sign uses 62.5% Indonesian, 12.5% Javanese, 12.5% English, and 12.5% Sanskrit. The Indonesian sign dominates the public space. Javanese, English, and Sanskrit appear in equal percentages. An example of an Indonesian sign is Satu Juta Kampung Inggris Borobudur. An example of an English sign is out. An example of a Sanskrit sign is amartha. The name tuksongo (Javanese) means nine springs. The names of the characters in the puppet, namely Abimanyu, Kamaratih, Gigiwati, Drupadi, Satyawati, Dewi Madrim, Utari, Damayanti, Kunti, Bima, Subadra, Srikandi, Rukmini, Dewayani, and Banowati, are used to name homestays at Balkondes Tuksongo.

1. Balkondes Wanurejo

In the Balkondes Wanurejo public space, three language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 33.3% Indonesian, 33.4% Javanese, and 33.3% Indonesian-English. The data shows that Indonesian signs dominate this public space, while English signs appear less frequently. At Balkondes Wanurejo, data on Javanese language signs was obtained on one of the buildings, gumok pandelengan. The word gumok can be a language variation of gumuk, ‘a high place’, or pandelengan, ‘vision’. So, gumok pandelengan means a high place to see the scenery around it. An example of an Indonesian-English sign is Selain tamu homestay dilarang masuk, ‘that guests other than homestay guests are prohibited from entering’.

1. Balkondes Wringinputih

In the Balkondes Wringinputih public space, eight language signs were obtained. The language sign uses 87.5% Indonesian and 12.5% English. These public spaces use more Indonesian signs than English. Indonesian signs dominate in this public space. An example of an Indonesian sign is Aula Wringinputih, area pejalan kaki, ‘a pedestrian area’. An example of an English sign is the Wringinputih Amphitheater.

1. Balkondes Duta Menoreh, Tanjungsari Village

In the Balkondes Duta Menoreh public space, six language signs were obtained. The language signs used were 66.6% Indonesian, 16.7% English, and 16.7% Javanese-Indonesian. Indonesian signs dominate the public spaces of Balkondes Duta Menoreh. English and Javanese appear equally in this public space. Examples of Indonesian signs are Balkondes Duta Menoreh, Desa Tanjungsari, dapur ‘kitchens, and administrasi ‘administration’. An example of an English sign is homestay. An example of a Javanese-Indonesian sign is Nek raiso jaga perasaan sak orane jogo kebersihan, ‘If you can’t keep your feelings, at least you can keep them clean’.

5. Language signs and Indonesian rules

The inscription of prayer rooms in the public spaces of Balkondes Borobudur, Balkondes Bigaran, Balkondes Bumiharjo, Balkondes Karanganyar, Balkondes Karangrejo, Balkondes Kembanglimus, Balkondes Kenalan, Balkondes Ngadiharjo, Balkondes Ngargogondo, Balkondes Tuksongo, and Balkondes Wringinputih is not following the rules of Indonesian spelling. The inscription of the mushola is derived from Arabic ىلصم. The inscription, according to the Indonesian spelling guidelines, is musala. Likewise, the inscription of sholat and wudhu in the Kembanglimus Balkondes public space does not comply with Indonesian spelling guidelines. The inscription of sholat, wudhu, is absorbed from Arabic ألْوُضُؤْ_{.,ٱلصَّلَاة} According to the Indonesian spelling guidelines, the inscription is ‘salat, musala, and wudu.’ In Balkondes Sakapitu, the word sentong, ‘room,’ is not written according to the rules of the Javanese language. The word sentong in Javanese is written as senthong (see Table 2).

Language signs in the Borobudur public spaces consist of 83.9% monolinguals, 14.9% bilinguals, and 1.2% multilinguals (see Table 3).

Monolingual public signs consist of Indonesian 64.5%, Javanese 19.9%, English 14.9, and Sanskrit 0.7%. It shows that Indonesian, the national language, occupies the highest position in the public space (Rohmah & Wijayanti, 2023). The following positions are Javanese, English, and Sanskrit. The following sequence is in Javanese, English, and Sanskrit. Given these data, it can be concluded that the ideology of the text’s producer prioritizes Indonesian as the national language and employs Javanese as the regional language to demonstrate its regional characteristics.

Example:

The monolingual public sign in Figure 1 is the Borobudur Balkondes buffet. Figure 2 monolingual Javanese public sign, Sugeng rawuh wonten Balkondes Borobudur, ‘Welcome to Balkondes Borobudur’. The sign of the Javanese language Sugeng rawuh wonten Balkondes Borobudur is the Javanese krama. The purpose of using Javanese krama is to respect tourists.

Figure 1. Indonesian language sign.

Figure 2. Javanese language sign.

In Figure 3, English signs, namely couple and single, are used in the Balkondes Karangrejo public space. The language sign is on the directory board. The English sign is intended to make it easier for foreign tourists to find homestays. In Figure 4, the word amartha, ‘timeless, eternal,’ is used in the Balkondes Tuksongo public space. The word amartha comes from Sanskrit. Words originating from Sanskrit are sometimes still used to name buildings in Java (See Table 4).

Figure 3. English Language Sign.

Figure 4. Sanskrit Language Sign.

Bilingual public signs consist of Indonesian-English 48%, English- Indonesian 12%, Indonesian-Javanese 16%, Javanese-Indonesian 20%, and English-Javanese 4%. Based on these data, it is known that Indonesian is still dominantly used in public spaces.

Example:

Figure 5 of the Balkondes Borobudur shows an Indonesian-English language sign, namely keluar and exit. The above public signs provide translations from the Indonesian language into English. The translation informs international supporters about the meaning of the public sign.

Figure 5. Indonesian-English language sign.

The language sign is intended for domestic and foreign tourists. Figure 6 of Balkondes Ngargogondo shows signs of the English-Javanese language: The Gade Village and Balkondes Ngargogondo Borobudur. The Balkondes are sponsored by Pegadaian. Therefore, the word gade is used.

Figure 6. English-Indonesian language sign.

In Figure 7 of Balkondes Bigaran, there is an Indonesian-Javanese language sign, Coklat Ndeso Bigaran. Some forms of public signs combine two languages, namely Indonesian and Javanese or Javanese and Indonesian. Variations of public signs are in the form of translation and combining of both language elements.

Figure 7. Indonesian-Javanese language sign.

The word coklat (Indonesian), ‘chocolate’, ndeso (Javanese), ‘village’, and Bigaran are place names. In Figure 8, Balkondes Duta Menoreh, Tanjungsari Village, there is a Javanese- Indonesian language sign, namely ‘Nek raiso jaga perasaan sak orane jaga kebersihan’: ‘If you can’t consider others’ sentiments, at least keep the environment clean’. The sentence contains an appeal to tourists.

Figure 8. Javanese-Indonesian language sign.

In Figure 9 of the Balkondes Karangrejo, there are signs for English- Javanese, ginger beer, bancakan ‘dish for salvation,’ tumpeng ijen ‘an exclusive tumpeng’, sego sambel teri ‘anchovy chilli sauce rice’, telo goreng, ‘fried cassava’, traditional culinary food, wedang uwuh ‘a drink mixed with certain herbs’, et cetera (see Table 5). Using two languages in public signs is intended to introduce Indonesian cuisine so that international visitors can understand the various culinary menus offered and the types/ingredients of these foods. Using the Javanese language maintains Indonesia’s culture and uniqueness by introducing traditional Javanese script.

Figure 9. English-Javanese language sign.

Multilingual public signs obtained in public spaces are Javanese- Indonesian-English with two language signs or 100%. It demonstrates that despite the presence of English, the Indonesian language and Javanese continue to be given utmost importance in public spaces.

Example:

The sign of the monggo pinarak, ‘please stop by’, is Javanese speech at the krama, or high level. The level of politeness is used to respect tourists. Apart from that, Javanese uses seneng-seneng, ‘having fun’. The Javanese language sign is used to show their identity as Javanese as the regional language. Traditional Indonesian culinary traditions show its identity as an Indonesian nation. It is envisaged that domestic tourists will be able to decipher the linguistic signs using Indonesian. English signs are typically used for homestays, meetings, weddings, and other gatherings so international tourists can comprehend them more readily.

6. Tourist testimonials and names of the indonesian national heroes on public signs in the balkondes of the Borobudur area

Borobudur Balkondes and Kenalan Balkondes feature are written in Indonesian, English, and English-Indonesian. Travelers wrote the testimonials.

Figure 10 shows the English and Indonesian language signs used by tourists to convey their testimonials.

Figure 10. Javanese-Indonesian-English language sign.

7. The role of language in economic activities in public spaces

In the following, we present a sample excerpt from an interview with a resident living around Balkondes Karangrejo– interviewer as (A), interviewee as (B).

• A: ‘Sugeng siang, nyuwun ngapunten, Bu. Kula badhe tanglet hal Balkondes Karangrejo menika.’

• ‘Good afternoon, I’m sorry, ma’am. I will take care of this Karangrejo Balkondes.’

• B: ‘Nggih, Bu. Kadospundi?’

• ‘Yes, ma’am. How is it?’

• A: ‘Miturut Ibu, kawontenan Balkondes menika wonten manfaatipun kagem masyarakat sekitar napa mboten?’

• ‘According to Mom, the condition of Balkondes is beneficial for the surrounding community, isn’t it?’

• B: ‘Oh, kathah manfaatipun. Tiyang mriki ingkang sakderengipun nganggur, sak menika saget nyambut damel wonten Balkondes. Balkondes menika menyerap tenaga kerja.’

• ‘Oh, there are many benefits. People here who were unemployed before are now working in Balkondes. Balcondes absorbs labor’.

• A: ‘Wonten Balkondes Karangrejo menika, tulisan ngagem bahasa Jawa, Indonesia, lan Inggris. Menurut Ibu, kados pundi?

• ‘In this Balkondes Karangrejo, the texts are in Javanese, Indonesian, and English. According to Mom, how is it?’

• B: ‘Kula tiyang Jawa, remen menawi teks-teks menika ngagem basa Jawa napa basa Indonesia amargi gampil anggenipun memahami’. Menawi teks bahasa Inggris menika amargi kathah tiyang saking mancanegari ingkang nyipeng wonten Balkondes niki. Perkembanganipun Balkondes niki cepet. Turis asing kathah. Home stay nggih sansaya kathah. Mula teks-teks ugi dilengkapi ngagem basa Inggris supaya turis asing seneng lan betah.’

• ‘I’m a Javanese. I like it if the texts are in Javanese or Indonesian because it’s easy to understand’. If the text is in English, it is because many people from abroad visit this Balkondes. The development of Balkondes is fast—many foreign tourists. The number of homestays is also increasing. Therefore, the texts are also written in English so foreign tourists are happy and comfortable.

• A: ‘Amargi turis mboten ngalami kesulitan nggih wektu mbetahaken informasi, dados saget ningkataken perekonomian masyarakat.’

• ‘Because tourists do not experience difficulties when they need information, it can improve the community’s economy’.

• B: ‘Leres, Bu.’

• ‘Yes, ma’am’.

• A: ‘Matur nuwun, Bu’.

• ‘Thank you, ma’am.’

Based on the interview, it is known that using various language signs is enough to help tourists understand information. This affects the increase in tourist visits and transactions, so there is an increase in the community’s economy. The increasing number of homestays and multilingual sign language in public spaces show that this helps support economic growth.

Based on the data collected, language signs in public spaces at Balkondes in the Borobudur area are classified as follows: (a) producing text; (b) language names, namely Indonesian, Javanese, English, Javanese-Indonesian, English-Indonesian, English-Javanese, and English-Javanese-Indonesian. Examples of these figures have been presented above.

At Balkondes Bigaran, homestay names are derived from the names of Indonesian national heroes, including Ahmad Yani, Frans Kaisepo, Adi Sumarmo, Pattimura, Juanda, and Adi Sutjipto. The informational function of English language signs in public spaces is to provide information to foreign travelers who typically communicate in English or require assistance understanding Indonesian. The informational function of language signs in public spaces in Indonesian is to provide information to domestic visitors from outside of Java or tourists who require assistance understanding Indonesian. The symbolic function of language signs in LL in Javanese is used to show their identity as Javanese, which is their regional language.

Figure 11 shows the language sign mangga disekecakaken, ‘please enjoy,’ using Javanese script at Balkondes Karangrejo. The purpose of using the Javanese script is to popularize it again among the public and tourists. In its development, relatively few young Javanese people can write and read Javanese script. Various agencies relatively widely use the Balkondes Karangrejo for meetings, and many tourists visit it. The Javanese script is also used in public spaces, so the script is better known, especially by the Javanese community or the younger generation. Likewise, in Figure 12, at Balkondes Karangrejo, you can see a sign with language signs in Javanese, Indonesian, and English scripts. Likewise, in Figure 13, at Balkondes Karangrejo, you can see a sign with language signs in Javanese, Indonesian, and English scripts. The language sign is English, namely homestays. The word homestay is very popular in the Borobudur area. The language sign is English, namely homestays. The word homestay is very popular in the Borobudur area.

Figure 11. Indonesian and English signs written by tourists.

Figure 12. Javanese alphabet sign.

Figure 13. Javanese alphabet-Indonesian-English sign.

The choice of language signs in public is related to the ideology of stakeholders or policymakers, namely local government and economic interests. The use of Javanese and Indonesian script shows that the local government remains grounded in local values and regional culture despite rapid cultural and technological developments (Sakhiyya & Martin-Anatias, 2023). The community supports the populist Balkondes concept, and its existence has improved the surrounding community’s economy. This can be seen in the workers in the surrounding environment who are absorbed and whose income increases.

The existence of Balkondes has absorbed the workforce of the surrounding community, thereby improving the economy. Balkondes, supported by diverse culinary and language signs, have increased the number of tourists. This can be seen from the increasing number of homestays in Balkondes.

8. Conclusion

Multiethnic and multilingual societies and tourists have influenced the use of language in public spaces in the Borobudur area. However, the use of language in public spaces in the Borobudur area still shows the identity of the people as Javanese, who are also part of the Indonesian nation. The texts that dominate public spaces are Indonesian language texts. The following order is Javanese, followed by English. Indonesian language texts dominate the public space, following government regulations regarding using Indonesian as the national language. Power relations appear to be influential in implementing language signs in public spaces.

Texts in public spaces in the Borobudur area use monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual language signs. These three language signs are used because the text creator pays attention to the place of the text, the people who speak it, and where the tourists come from. Indonesian is used in the public spaces of the Borobudur area, considering that this area is visited by many domestic tourists from Java and outside Java. By using Indonesian, the national language, all domestic tourists can understand the information in the LL.

Javanese is used in public spaces in the Borobudur area to show the identity of the text creator as a Javanese person. English is used in public spaces so that foreign tourists can understand the information contained in the LL.

In the public space of Balkondes, Borobudur District, 64.5% use Indonesian because Indonesian is the national language in Indonesia. Government policy has regulated the use of language in public spaces, including the obligation to use Indonesian in public spaces. The obligation is stated in Law No. 24 of 2009 on the National Flag, Language, Emblem, and Anthem in Article 38, Paragraphs 1 and 2. Using the Indonesian language also serves domestic tourists from all over Indonesia who have different local languages. So, by using Indonesian, the national language, they can understand each other so that communication takes place fluently and transactions occur that improve the community’s economy. The data shows that there is a relationship between power and economic improvement.

The distribution of language sign use includes 83.9% monolingual, 14.9% bilingual, and 1.2% multilingual. The monolingual sign language used is Indonesian 64.5%, Javanese 19.9%, English 14.9%, and Sanskrit 0.7%. The bilingual sign language used is Indonesian-English 48%, English-Indonesian 12%, Indonesian-Javanese 16%, Javanese-Indonesian 20%, and English- Javanese 4%. The multilingual sign language used is Javanese, Indonesian, and English. This percentage shows that national identity, namely the Indonesian language sign, and regional identity, namely the Javanese language sign, are still maintained in the Borobudur area.

In social interactions, people in the Borobudur area use Javanese and Indonesian. Based on the economic aspect, the existence of the Balkondes in the Borobudur area has been relatively successful in improving the economy of the local community, supported by language signs: monolingual, bilingual and multilingual, which are understood by the community, domestic and foreign tourists.

The language signs in the figures above use monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual texts. Balkondes is located in Central Java, which has the local language, Javanese, so some texts in public spaces also use Javanese to preserve Javanese. Text producers also use bilingual and multilingual texts so foreign tourists can more easily understand information written in public spaces. Text producers also use Indonesian, the national language, so that tourists from outside Java can understand the information in public spaces. Apart from that, text producers also implement regulations regarding the use of language in public spaces, as stated in Law No. 24 of 2009 on the National Flag, Language, Emblem, and Anthem.

The use of English-language signs is intended to serve foreign tourists so they can more easily understand the information in public spaces. The ease of obtaining this information really supports foreign tourists in communicating for transactions, so there is an improvement in the community’s economy. Therefore, text producers use a variety of sign languages, namely Javanese, Indonesian, and English.

Language signs influence tourists. Based on conversations with tourists, it is known that tourists are happy with the presence of various language signs because this really helps them understand information. Transactions are also easier to carry out without worrying about misunderstandings, so communication occurs effectively. This effectiveness is characterized by fluently communicating and understanding each other.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This research received no grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Notes on contributors

Dwi Atmawati

Dwi Atmawati, Ade Mulyanah, Joni Endardi, Muhardis, and Siti Fatinah have collaborated in researching the phenomenon of language use in public spaces at the Balai Ekonomi Desa (Balkondes) ‘Village Economic Center’, throughout the Borobudur District, Magelang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. They are linguistic researchers at the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) of Indonesia. This research focuses on the linguistic landscape of the entire Balkondes. In the linguistic landscape, their research revolves around the use of language in public spaces, regional identity, the preservation of Javanese as a local language, government policies regarding language, and the development of economic activities concerning language and tourists.

Dwi Atmawati is a researcher at National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) of Indonesia. She has a doctorate in linguistics. Her writings on language in sociolinguistics and semantics studies have been published in national journals, international journals, national proceedings and international proceedings.

Ade Mulyanah

Ade Mulyanah works at the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) of Indonesia. Her research interest is in linguistics, and she has done some linguistic research: syntax, pragmatics, education, sociolinguistics, language revitalization, and translation. Her present research is on cross-cultural understanding in intercultural communication studies.

Joni Endardi

Joni Endardi is a researcher at the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) of Indonesia. He has a doctorate in linguistics. His interests are in genolinguistics, dialectology, comparative historical linguistics, ethnolinguistics, and landscape linguistics.

Muhardis Muhardis

Muhardis is a researcher at the Research Center for Language, Literature, and Community (BRIN) andhas conducted various studies related to language, literature, literacy, and educational evaluation since 2010. During leisure time, he contributes articles to the columns of Kompas.com and Kompasiana.com.

Siti Fatinah

Siti Fatinah has been a researcher at the Central Sulawesi Provincial Language Center from 2001–2020. From 2020 until now, she has joined the Language and Literature Preservation Research Center, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) of Indonesia. Her specialty is interdisciplinary linguistics, and her main research interests are sociolinguistics, dialectology, comparative historical linguistics, ethnolinguistics, and landscape linguistics.