The Prevalence of Bonded Labor in Three Districts of Karnataka State, India: Using a Unique Application of Mark-Recapture for Estimation

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the results of a prevalence study of bonded labor in three districts of Karnataka State, India. Using a unique application of mark-recapture analysis, enumerators surveyed 4,306 laborers in marketplaces from April to June 2015, capturing data on 15 distinct industries across 3,765 worksites. Based on these surveys, an estimated 33.4% of the laborers interviewed were bonded and 30.5% were suspected to have been trafficked to their current worksite. Regression analyses suggest that interstate migrant laborers were significantly more likely to be bonded than intrastate migrants or nonmigrants. The authors discuss policy recommendations, novel intervention strategies, and research opportunities for future studies.

KEYWORDS:

• Bonded labor
• forced labor trafficking
• India
• mark-recapture
• population size estimation
• prevalence estimation
• slavery
• migrant labor

Notes

1. These reasons, coupled with the inherent methodological challenges in measuring a hidden population, were why this study chose to use a modified definition of the Indian legal definition, focused on restricted freedom of movement and employment. Advance and minimum wage were not used due to the challenges in obtaining the information and because many in India are not paid minimum wage and yet are not considered bonded laborers. Further details are provided later in this paper.

2. IJM’s own data shows that the government rescued 100 victims in 2014 in the three districts surrounding Bangalore and filed a First Information Report (FIR) in each of these cases. A FIR is a written document prepared by the police when they receive information about the commission of a cognizable offence. It is a very important document as it sets the process of criminal justice in motion. It is only after the FIR is registered in the police station that the police takes up investigation of the case.

3. A scheme is a program created by the Central Government to provide financial resources for a freed bonded laborer, with that cost shared between the State and Central Government.

4. The 19 countries had prevalence rates ranging from 2.3% in Haiti (a USAID source) to 0.05% in Nigeria (Gallop World Poll source). GSI calculated India’s figure by using an average of the prevalence rates of Pakistan and Nepal with a 70% weighting plus the average of the prevalence rates of Niger and Haiti with a 30% weighting. This yielded a figure of 1.14% for the population.

5. The three population estimation efforts include Kevin Bales’ research in 1999, Ravi Srivastava’s research in 2005, and Siddharth Kara’s research in 2012.

6. Taluk markets are the central market for the respective taluk, designed to service the majority of the residents of that taluk.

7. IJM, Westat, and National Adivasi Solidarity Council (NASC) jointly developed this survey instrument to measure bonded labor prevalence in the entire state of Tamil Nadu. IJM and NASC field tested the instrument, and Westat conducted validity testing on exercises implemented by NASC with the instrument.

8. Article 3, paragraph (a) of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons defines Trafficking in Persons (“Palermo Protocol”) as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.

9. The 3,765 total worksites captured over the course of the study takes into account all weeks of data collection, not just the soft launch week and first two weeks of full data collection (capturing 1,981 worksites).

10. The “other” category included work in animal farming and security, painting, electrical work/plumbing, small shops, cooking, driving, and security (guard).

11. During the second week of full data collection, a security incident occurred in one market. A group of local brick kiln owners threatened the data collection team and mandated they stop conducting interviews. For security reasons, data collection in this market halted immediately. Unfortunately, even though the majority of remaining markets were hundreds of kilometers away from each other, a brick kiln owner-network proved well-connected and data collection in 11 other markets (four in Bangalore Urban, six in Bangalore Rural, and one in Ramanagara) halted after the second week of data collection due to perceived and actual threats on the enumerators. Due to this security incident, the study’s methodology substantially changed mid-course. Data collection continued in the remaining five markets for an additional two weeks. This explains the larger number of laborers interviewed in Ramanagara District as the markets terminated early were in the other two targeted districts. The realized security risk also restricted the mark-recapture sampling method to the first two weeks of full data collection instead of the anticipated four weeks, limiting the ability to refine the laborer population estimate further.

12. Based on INR to USD of 66.79 as of December 11, 2015. https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=35697.

13. Based on INR to USD of 66.79 as of December 11, 2015. https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=35697.

14. Based on INR to USD of 66.79 as of December 11, 2015. https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=35697.

15. Based on INR to USD of 66.79 as of December 11, 2015. https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=35697.

16. Based on INR to USD of 66.79 as of December 11, 2015. https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=35697.

17. Email [email protected] and request a copy of the “Tamil Nadu Bonded Labor Prevalence Study Report.”

Additional information

Funding

This research was funded by the International Justice Mission; however, the data was collected by an independent third party.