Exosomes: from biology to immunotherapy in infectious diseases

Abstract

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles derived from the endosomal compartment, which are released by all kinds of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. These vesicles contain a variety of biomolecules that differ both in quantity and type depending on the origin and cellular state. Exosomes are internalized by recipient cells, delivering their content and thus contributing to cell–cell communication in health and disease. During infections exosomes may exert a dual role, on one hand, they can transmit pathogen-related molecules mediating further infection and damage, and on the other hand, they can protect the host by activating the immune response and reducing pathogen spread. Selective packaging of pathogenic components may mediate these effects. Recently, quantitative analysis of samples by omics technologies has allowed a deep characterization of the proteins, lipids, RNA, and metabolite cargoes of exosomes. Knowledge about the content of these vesicles may facilitate their therapeutic application. Furthermore, as exosomes have been detected in almost all biological fluids, pathogenic or host-derived components can be identified in liquid biopsies, making them suitable for diagnosis and prognosis. This review attempts to organize the recent findings on exosome composition and function during viral, bacterial, fungal, and protozoan infections, and their contribution to host defense or to pathogen spread. Moreover, we summarize the current perspectives and future directions regarding the potential application of exosomes for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes.

Keywords:

• Exosomes
• microvesicles
• human pathogens
• exosomes cargo
• vaccines
• biomarkers

Acknowledgments

To the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (CRP/MEX20-04_EC) (HMG-S). We wish to acknowledge Alondra Yareli Martínez Mora for assisting with the preparation of the tables.

Author contributions

VVR-R and HMG-S conceived the study and drafted the manuscript, CL-G modified and polished the manuscript. All authors contributed to literature analysis and interpretation, commented on the drafts of the manuscript, and approved the final draft of the paper.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (CRP/MEX20-04_EC).