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Abstract
The 2003 Iraq invasion and the social revolutions triggered by the Arab Spring have profoundly altered the security of the Gulf countries. This article looks at the way small Gulf states have adapted their alignment strategies as a consequence of these sociopolitical changes. It argues that despite the perceived disengagement of the USA from the region, Washington nonetheless remains the ally of choice for the small Gulf states. However, under the pressure of the new leadership in Saudi Arabia, these states are increasingly expected to contribute to regional security. Similarly, they are also looking to diversify their alliances.
Notes
1. Mouritzen, External Danger and Democracy, 101–6; Walt, The Origins of Alliances; Waltz, Theory of International Politics; and Wivel, “The Security Challenge,” 396.
2. Gause, “Balancing What?”; and Cooper and Momani, “Qatar and Expanded Contours.”
3. Barnett, Dialogues in Arab Politics; and Buzan and Waever, Regions and Powers.
4. Gause, The International Relations.
5. Ayoob, The Third World Security Predicament.
6. Gresh, Gulf Security and the U.S.
7. Russell, “Regional Threats and Security Strategy.”
8. Hertog, “Rentier Militaries in the Gulf States.”
9. Rickli, “European Small States’ Military Policies.”
10. Thorhallsson and Wivel, “Small States in the European Union,” 655.
11. Fendius Elman, “The Foreign Policies of Small States,” 171.
12. Goetschel, “The Foreign and Security Policy,” 19.
13. Mouritzen, External Danger and Democracy, 101–6; and Wivel, “The Security Challenge,” 396.
14. Walt, The Origins of Alliances.
15. Wiberg, “Security Problems of Small Nations,” 37.
16. Bailes et al., “Small States, Survival and Strategy.”
17. Reiter, Crucible of Beliefs.
18. Lim and Cooper, “Reassessing Hedging,” 709.
19. ibid., 703.
20. Tunsjø, Security and Profit, 2–3.
21. Reiter, Crucible of Beliefs, 65.
22. Goetschel, “The Foreign and Security Policy Interests,” 27.
23. Taliaferro et al., “Introduction: Neoclassical Realism.”
24. Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
25. Maloney, “Energy Security in the Persian Gulf.”
26. Almezaini and Rickli, The Gulf Small States.
27. Cordesman and Peacock, The Arab-U.S. Strategic Partnership, 495.
28. Chatham House, “Islamism and its Alternatives.”
29. Al-Ibrahim, “ISIS, Wahhabism and Takfir.”
30. Naji, The Management of Savagery.
31. Ulrichsen, Insecure Gulf, 85–109.
32. Cooper and Momani, “Qatar and Expanded Contours,” 114.
33. Panke, “Small States in Multilateral Negotiations”; and Deitelhoff and Wallbott, “Beyond Soft Balancing.”
34. Ulrichsen, “Security Policy of the Gulf States,” 24.
35. Cordesman and Peacock, The Arab-U.S. Strategic Partnership, 492–5.
36. Daneshvar, “Iran Says its Elite Forces’.”
37. Rickli, “Obama, will it be Iran.”
38. Friedman, “Battle for Bahrain.”
39. Lister, “Distrusting U.S.”
40. Emirate 24/7, “UAE’s Defence Ties”; and AFP, “Qatar and Pakistan.”
41. Janardhan, “Gulf-East Asian Relations.”
42. Johnston, “Britain to Build”; and Chuter, “UK Considering Permanent Army Training Base.”
43. Smith and Ferguson, “France’s Nuclear Diplomacy.”
44. BBC, “French President Sarkozy.”
45. Barnes-Dacey, “France’s Deepening Relations.”
46. Almotairy, The Gulf Cooperation Council.
47. Cordesman and Peacock, The Arab-U.S. Strategic Partnership, 508–11.
48. Gause, The International Relations, 72.
49. Finn, “Turkey to Set Up Qatar Military Base.”
50. Samaan, “NATO in the Gulf,” 6.
51. Schumacher, “Transatlantic Cooperation,” 23.
52. NATO, Strategic Concept.
53. Interviews NATO.
54. Dessi, “Potential Challenges of EU-US Relations,” 137.
55. NATO, NATO Wales Summit Declaration, art. 83.
56. GRC, “Assessment of the Security Situation,” 7–8.
57. Legrenzi, “NATO in the Gulf,” 73.
58. NATO, The Alliance’s Strategic Concept.
59. Rickli, “The Political Rationale.”
60. Interview NATO 2013.
61. Laipson et al., “Security Sector Reform,” 14.
62. De Santis, “Opening to the Mediterranean.”
63. Sager, “What do the Gulf,” 17.
64. Samaan, “NATO in the Gulf,” 6.
65. Razoux, “What Future for NATO,” 3.
66. NATO, “The Istanbul cooperation Initiative”; and Interview Schwarz 2013.
67. An Individual Partnership Programme (IPP) lists specific cooperation activities agreed between NATO and a Partner. The activities are drawn from the Partnership Work Programme which is a catalogue of all activities offered by NATO to its Partners.
68. NATO, “Keynote address by NATO.”
69. Schwarz, “NATO’s Relations.”
70. Interview NATO officials 2013.
71. Samaan, “NATO in the Gulf,” 1.
72. Interview Minuto-Rizzo 2013.
73. Samaan, “NATO in the Gulf,” 6.
74. Solmirano and Wezeman, “Military Spending and Arms Procurement,” 1.
75. Laipson et al., “Security Sector Reform,” 11.
76. De Atkine, “Why Arabs Lose Wars.”
77. Hagel, “Global Security Priorities.”
78. SUSRIS, “34th GCC Summit.”
79. Karasik, “The GCC Summit.”
80. UAE Minister of State, “The Defense Ministers.”
81. SUSRIS, “26th Arab Summit.”
82. Murdock, “Arab League Delays Forming Joint Force”; and Salem-News, “Deep Disputes.”
83. Browning and Irish, “Saudi Arabia Announces.”
84. Dunya News, “Pakistan Part of Saudi Alliance.”
85. Interview defence manufacturers 2013.