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Articles

Going it alone? North Korea’s adaptability as a small power in a changing world

Pages 63-78 | Received 20 Dec 2015, Accepted 16 Aug 2016, Published online: 04 Oct 2016
 

Abstract

This article uses small states scholarship to map North Korea’s evolution from a post-colonial small state to a system-influencing state due to its nuclear weapons programme. The framework allows for contributions to: (1) The DPRK literature which in some parts has suggested the future collapse of the state, (2) The small states literature that suggests they can only survive if they integrate larger political and/or economic units, (3) The mainstream IR literature and its dominant realist streak that considers great powers and their will as the main drivers in contemporary world politics.

Notes

1. Buszynski, “Russia and North Korea.”

2. Scobell, “China and North Korea.”

3. Nanto et al., “North Korean Economy Leverage.”

4. Moon, Arms Control on the Korean Peninsula.

5. Gills, “North Korea and the Crisis of Socialism.”

6. Browning, “Small, Smart and Salient?.”

7. McCormack, Target North Korea.

8. Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak.

9. Hey, Small States in World Politics.

10. Breen, Kim Jong-Il; Chun, “Political Socialization in North Korea”; Cotton, “Patriarchs and Politics”; Cumings, North Korea.

11. Lee, Legal Issues of Inter-Korean Economic Cooperation; Nanto et al., “North Korean Economy Leverage”; Gills, “North Korea and the Crisis of Socialism.”

12. Bleiker, Divided Korea; Kim, Inter-Korean Relations; Lee, Legal Issues of Inter-Korean Economic Cooperation; Gurtov, “Common Security in North Korea”; Grzelczyk, “New Approaches to North Korean Politics after Reunification”; Levin and Han, Sunshine in Korea.

13. Smith, Reconstituting Korean Security; “North-East Asia's Regional Security Secrets”; Beal, North Korea.

14. Rozman, “North Korean Nuclear Crisis”; Albright and Hinderstein, “Dismantling the Dprk’s Nuclear Weapons Program”; Van Ness, North Korean Nuclear Crisis.

15. Sigal, Disarming Strangers; Carlin, Negotiating with North Korea; Cha and Kang, Nuclear North Korea.

16. Snyder and Flake, Paved with Good Intentions; Park, Hawaii Studies on Korea; Lee, “International Engagement in North Korea's Humanitarian Crisis”; Manyin and Nikitin, Foreign Assistance to North Korea; Smith, “‘Opening up’ by Default”; Snyder, A Coming Crisis on the Korean Peninsula?

17. Kihl and Kim, North Korea; Oh and Hassig, North Korea through the Looking Glass.

18. Ślusarczyk, “Role of the European Union”; Scott Snyder, “North Korea’s Decline”; Han S. Park, “North Korean Perceptions of Self and Others”; Ming Liu, China’s Role in the Course of North Korea’s Transition?

19. Hayes, “Thinking About the Thnikable.”

20. Bailes and Thorhallsson, “Instrumentalizing the European Union.”

21. Ibid.

22. Handel, Weak States in the International System.

23. Keohane, “Lilliputians’ Dilemmas”; Knudsen, “Small States, Latent and Extant”; Browning, “Small, Smart and Salient?”

24. Neumann et al., Lilliputians in Gulliver’s World?.

25. Henrikson, “A Coming ‘Magnesian’ Age?”

26. Barston, The Other Powers.

27. Vital, The Survival of Small States.

28. East, “Foreign Policy-making in Small States.”

29. Bishop, “The Political Economy of Small States”

30. Giorgi Gvalia et al., “Thinking Outside the Bloc.”

31. Neumann et al., Lilliputians in Gulliver’s World?.

32. Vital, Survival of Small States.

33. NTI (Nuclear Threat Initiative), “North Korea, Overview,” May 2016. Accessed July 29, 2016. http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/north-korea/; Arms Control Association, “Chronology of U.S.-North Korean Nuclear and Missile Diplomacy,” March 2016. Accessed July 29, 2016. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/dprkchron.

34. Keohane, “Lilliputians’ Dilemmas.”

35. Kassimeris, “Foreign Policy of Small Powers.”

36. Bishop, “Political Economy of Small States?”

37. Mouritzen, “Testing Weak-Power Theory.”

38. Bailes and Thorhallsson, “Instrumentalizing the European Union.”

39. East, “Foreign Policy-making in Small States.”

40. Brunn, “The Worldviews of Small States.”

41. Henrikson, “A Coming ‘Magnesian’ Age?”

42. Knudsen, “Small States, Latent and Extant.”

43. “Journal of Soviet Ambassador in the DPRK A.M. Puzanov for 1 June 1960.” http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116116.

44. “Report, Embassy of Hungary in North Korea to the Hungarian Foreign Ministry, 22 July 1967.” http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116656.

45. “Telegram to the Asia Department Head from Information and Culture Department, ‘North Korea Holds Chief Diplomatic Officers Conference’,” November 22, 1979. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/118395.

46. “Ciphered Telegram, Embassy of Hungary in North Korea to the Hungarian Foreign Ministry,” 6 June 1980. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/119649.

47. McCormack, Target North Korea.

48. Frank, “Eu – North Korean Relations.”

49. Walt, The Origins of Alliances.

50. “Journal of Soviet Ambassador in the DPRK A.M. Puzanov for 1 June 1960.” http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116116.

51. “Report, Embassy of Hungary in North Korea to the Hungarian Foreign Ministry, 22 July 1967.” http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116656.

52. “Telegram to the Asia Department Head from Information and Culture Department, ‘North Korea Holds Chief Diplomatic Officers Conference’.” 22 November 1979. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/118395.

53. “Ciphered Telegram, Embassy of Hungary in North Korea to the Hungarian Foreign Ministry,” 6 June 1980. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/119649.

54. “Telegram from Stalin to Kim Il Sung,” 12 October 1948, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, CWIHP archive. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/119377.

55. “Premier Zhou Enlai’s Note to North Korea on His Willingness to Establish Diplomatic Relations with China.” 6 October 1949, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/118619.

56. See National Committee on North Korea – DPRK Diplomatic Relations. Accessed July 29, 2016. http://www.ncnk.org/resources/briefing-papers/all-briefing-papers/dprk-diplomatic-relations.

57. East, Foreign Policy-making.

58. Papadakis and Starr, “Opportunity, Willingness and Stmall States.”

59. Associated Press, “The Two Koreas, at War for 46 Years, Prepare to Join United Nations,” September 17, 1991.

60. Agence France Presse, “Taiwan Commits Two Million Dollars Foo Aid to North Korea: Reports,” 9 April 1997.

61. Associated Press International, “Pakistan Offers Free Food for North Korea,” 23 September 1998.

62. Associated Press, “India Gives North Korea 1,000 tons of Free Rice,” 12 February 1999.

63. Agence France Presse, “Vietnam Offers 5,000 Tons of Rice in Aid to North Korea,” 12 April 2001; Agence France Presse, “Vietnam Gives 1,000 Tons in Rice Aid to Famine-hit North Korea,” 23 July 2005; The Guardian, “Vietnam Donates Rice to Tackle Hunger in Flood-hit North Korea,” 13 August 2012.

64. Xinhua News Agency, “Mongolia to Offer Food Assistance to North Korea,” 9 November 2011.

65. Platt’s Oilgram News, “Mexico to Donate $100-mil in Crude to North Korea: Report,” 8 September 1999.

66. Info-Prod Research (Middle East), “Israel Exchanges Aid for Arms Control with North Korea,” 23 March 2000.

67. Associated Press, “Canada Hints at Possible Resumption of Aid to North Korea,” 2 May 2007; Yonhap, “Australia Donates 2.8 m Dollars in Food Aid to North Korea,” 14 May 2014; Associated Press, “New Zealand Threatens to Suspend Aid to North Korea Over Nuclear Arms Program,” 10 November 2002.

68. “Journal of Soviet Ambassador to the DPRK V. I. Ivanov for 20 January 1956,” 20 January 1956, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/120790.

69. “Journal of Soviet Ambassador in the DPRK A.M. Puzanov for 10 February 1960.” http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116279.

70. Chosun Ilbo, “What Did N. Korea’s Nuclear Program Cost?” 13 February 2013.

71. Cho, “Method to the Madness of Chairman Kim.”

72. The Bank of Korea, “Gross Domestic Product Estimates for North Korea for 2011,” http://www.nkeconwatch.com/nk-uploads/DPRK-GDP-2011-BOK.pdf; Trading Economics. Accessed July 29, 2016; “North Korea GDP.” Accessed July 29, 2016. http://www.tradingeconomics.com/north-korea/gdp.

73. Habib, “Enforcement Problem in Resolution.”

74. Kim, “Stifled Growth and Added Suffering.”

75. Agence France Presse, “Cambodia Hails North Korea’s End of Isolationism,” 30 July 2000.

76. KCNA, “DPRK Will Perform Its Responsibility and Role as Independent UN Member: Head of DPRK Delegation,” 29 September 2014.

77. KCNA, “Rodong Sinmun on S. Korea’s Call for ‘Attraction to Foreign Capital’,” 29 June 1998.

78. KCNA, “Economic Development Association Organized in DPRK,” 16 October 2010.

79. KCNA, “Pyongyang External Civil Law Firm,” 26 May 2011.

80. UNData, “Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.” Accessed July 29, 2016. http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Democratic%20People's%20Republic%20of%20Korea#Economic.

81. Cho, “Method to the Madness of Chairman Kim.”

82. Council on Foreign Relations, “The China-North Korea Relationship,” 8 February 2016. Accessed July 29, 2016. http://www.cfr.org/china/china-north-korea-relationship/p11097.

83. Agence France Presse, “Sweden Pledges New Aid for North Korea, but More Still Needed,” 14 February 1996; Baltic News Service, Estonia Gives Eur32,000 for North Korea Food Aid,” 11 December 2008.

84. Agence France Presse, “Germany Steps up Food Aid to North Korea,” 8 August 1997.

85. The Korea Herald, “France Offers Help to North Korea,” 25 September 2011.

86. Associated Press International, “Singapore Company Signs Deal to Grow Trees in North Korea,” 28 August 2001.

87. Screen International, “Italy’s Mondo Strikes Cartoon Gold in North Korea,” 16 May 2003.

88. The Straits Times, “Made in North Korea, Sold in Singapore,” 7 December 2007.

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