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Abstract
This article takes stock of Rwanda’s decentralisation by reviewing the existing evidence and putting it into perspective with the wider literature on decentralisation. It challenges the narrative that depicts the Rwandan decentralisation as a wholly negative or destabilising process by arguing that the focus of the scholarship on lack of popular participation should not ignore key dynamics that had significant stabilising effects. Yet, as the Rwandan economy and society are becoming more diversified, introduction of bottom-up mechanisms of decision-making will be necessary in the future to enhance the government responsiveness to evolving local needs and ensure stability in the long run.
Notes
1. MINALOC, Governance and Decentralization Sector.
2. E.g. Gaynor, This Issue; Ingelaere, “Peasants, Power and Ethnicity”; Ingelaere, “What’s on a Peasant’s Mind?”; Purdeková, “Even If I Am Not Here”; Reyntjens, Political Governance in Post-genocide Rwanda, 260–1; and Sommers, Stuck, 228–9.
3. Conyers, “Decentralisation and Service Delivery”; and Crook, “Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction in Africa.”
4. World Bank, Decentralization in Client Country, 3.
5. World Bank, Making Services Work for Poor People.
6. E.g. Treisman, The Architecture of Government, 11.
7. E.g. World Bank, Decentralization in Client Country, 8.
8. Conyers, “Decentralisation and Service Delivery”; Crook, “Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction”; Crook and Sverrisson “Decentralisation and Poverty Alleviation”; Robinson “Introduction: Decentralising”; and Wunsh, “Decentralization, Local Governance.”
9. Bardhan, “Decentralization of Governance and Development.”
10. Roden et al., “Fiscal Decentralization.”
11. Prud’homme, “The Dangers of Decentralization.”
12. Faguet, “Decentralisation and Governance,” 5; and World Bank, Making Services Work for Poor People, 89.
13. Faguet, “Decentralisation and Governance.”
14. Bardhan, “Decentralization of Governance and Development,” 192; also Prud’homme, “The Dangers of Decentralization”; and Bardhan and Mookherjee, “Capture and Governance at Local”; for a review, see Fjeldstad “Decentralisation and corruption.”
15. Bardhan, “Decentralization of Governance and Development”; and Prud’homme, “Danger of Decentralization.”
16. Jackson, This Issue.
17. Smoke, “Rethinking Decentralization,” 108.
18. Rondinelli et al., “Analysing Decentralization Policies.”
19. Verpoorten, “Growth, Poverty and Inequality.”
20. World Bank, World Development Indicators.
21. NISR, Statistical Yearbook, 5–7.
22. Ibid.
23. Since they receive grants and mobilise their own revenue. Source: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning.
24. Local Government Finance Commission, Review of Local Government Financing, 24.
25. Presidential Order N˚ 53/01 of 19 August 2015 establishing the job classification and the salary index grid in public service.
26. E.g. Wunsh, “Decentralization, Local Governance.”
27. See also Hasselskog and Schierenbeck, “National Policy in Local Practice.”
28. For the year 2011/2012. MINALOC, Governance and Decentralization Sector, 13.
29. In Uganda, 85–90% of the funds are earmarked. Local Government Finance Commission, Review of Local Government Financing, b.
30. They are the mayors of Gisagara District, Southern Province, and Rulindo district, Northern Province. The number of mandates for mayors is limited to two, which means that they could not run for the 2016 elections.
31. Chemouni, “Explaining the Design,” 251; and Hasselskog, “Participation or What?,” 187.
32. Huggins, “Agricultural Policies”; and Chemouni “Explaining the Design,” 250.
33. E.g. Bucagu et al. “Impact on Health System Strengthening,” 57–8; Chambers and Golooba-Mutebi, “Is the Bride”; and Williams, “Oriented Towards Action.”
34. Although some exceptions exist. In agriculture, some agricultural services are delivered by the Rwandan Agricultural Board, an agency from the Ministry of Agriculture. On conceptualising development, and notably service delivery, as a collective action problem, see Booth, “Development as a Collective Action Problem.”
35. Interview with family planning and maternal health specialist, International NGO, 23 May 2013, Rwanda, Kigali, translated from French.
36. Chambers and Golooba-Mutebi, “Is the Bride.”
37. See note 2 above
38. Citizens elect the cell councils, which elects the sector councils, which then elect the district council, that finally elect the mayor. Chemouni, “Explaining the design.” On the political space at the national level, see Beswick “Managing Dissent in a Post-genocide”; and Reyntjens, Political Governance in Post-genocide Rwanda.
39. The only non-RPF mayor was from the Socio-Democrat Party mayor of Ngoma district, in Eastern Province.
40. E.g. Purdeková, “Even If I Am Not Here”; and Sommers, Stuck, 228–9.
41. Gaynor, “Beneath the Veneer.”
42. Uvin, Aiding Violence.
43. Gatlung, “Violence, Peace and Peace Research,” 138.
44. Uvin, Aiding Violence, 130.
45. Ibid., 135.
46. Ibid., 138.
47. Gaynor, This Issue; Gaynor, “A Nation in a Hurry”; Ingelaere, “Peasants, Power and Ethnicity”; Ingelaere, “What’s on a Peasant’s Mind?”; Purdeková, “Even If I Am Not Here”; Reyntjens, Political Governance in Post-genocide Rwanda, 260–1; and Sommers, Stuck, 228–9.
48. Bahl and Martinez-Vazquez, “Sequencing Fiscal Decentralization”; and Falleti, “A Sequential Theory of Decentralization.”
49. Bahl and Martinez-Vazquez, “Sequencing Fiscal Decentralization.”
50. Loayza et al., “More Than You Can Handle”; See also Bahl and Martinez-Vazquez (2006, 29).
51. Bahl and Martinez-Vazquez, “Sequencing Fiscal Decentralization,” 5,6.
52. Ibid., 29.
53. E.g. Sanchez and Chacon, “Conflict, State and Decentralization”; Bigdon and Hettige, “Local Governance and Conflict Management”; and Jackson, This Issue.
54. Ansoms, “Re-engineering Rural Society,” 295.
55. The New Times, “Local Govts Surrender Tax Collection to RRA” March 04, 2014.
56. The New Times, “Mutuelle: Why Health Scheme was Moved to Pensions Body,” March 11, 2014.
57. Chemouni, “Explaining the Design,” 252–5.
58. The New Times, “How Probe Uncovered the Rot,” February 03, 15.
59. Interview with district health director, Southern Province, 13 June 2013. Translated from the French.
60. Interview with a vice-mayor, Southern Province, 12 June 2013. Translated from the French.
61. Interview with official in the General Directorate of Planning and Monitoring & Evaluation, Ministry of Health 13 June 2013.
62. The requirement was the same at national level.
63. http://www.ralgarwanda.org/index.php?id=162. Accessed 28 August 2016.
64. Smoke, “Decentralisation in Africa” 11.
65. E.g. Rwanda Focus. “Reboot Needed,” 28 Apirl 2016; and OAG, Report of the Auditor General, 62–3.