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People, Place, and Region

The Cultural Geopolitics of Ethnic Nationalism: Turkish Urbanism in Occupied Istanbul (1918–1923)

Pages 1179-1193 | Received 01 Jun 2016, Accepted 01 Feb 2017, Published online: 21 Apr 2017
 

Abstract

What are the roles of history and memory in geopolitics? How does urban experience influence geopolitical understandings of one's place in the world? This article brings these questions to a study of how Ottoman Turkish citizens of Istanbul came to link ethnicity with nationalism and to view their Greek Orthodox neighbors as national betrayers. I propose an explicitly cultural geopolitics: an affective, embodied critical geopolitics contextually dependent on experience, encounter, and memory in place. My sources are postwar Ottoman humor gazettes published in Istanbul, the waning capital of the Ottoman Empire, while it was occupied by Allied forces immediately after World War I. The future sovereignty of the city was unknown, and there was no coherent state structure. As normative (and also subversive) popular media, humor gazettes illustrate the reverberation of postwar geopolitics with the lived and remembered processes of urban place. Ethno-nationalist Turkish belonging in Istanbul was a form of urbanism, composed of place-based norms for behavior and a commonly understood cultural geography of the city. Satirical depictions of urban Turkish and Greek encounters during the armistice era betray a Turkish anxiety surrounding territorial and historical claims to the city and also a simultaneous questioning and hardening of the imagined geographies that demarcated Turkish and Greek identities as nationally distinct. This research illuminates the topological and relational dimensions of ethno-nationalist identity formation and the role of urban cultural processes in political belonging in the contemporary Middle East.

历史与记忆在地缘政治中的角色为何? 城市经验如何影响一个人理解自身在世界中的位置之地缘政治? 本文将这些问题带入有关奥斯曼土耳其的伊斯坦堡公民如何将族裔与国族主义连结, 并视其希腊正教的邻居为国家背叛者的研究。我提出一个显着的文化地缘政治: 一个情感的、身体化的批判地缘政治, 并且在脉络上依附地方的经验、邂逅与记忆。我的资料来源是奥斯曼战后在日渐衰落的帝国首都伊斯坦堡发行的幽默报, 该城市在一战后立即被盟军佔领。该城市未来的主权悬而未决, 且不存在一致的国家结构。幽默报作为规范性 (同时也是颠覆性) 的大众媒体, 描绘战后地缘政治在生活且记忆的城市地方过程中的馀韵。在伊斯坦堡, 土耳其的族裔国族主义归属以城市主义的形式展现, 由基于地方的行为规范与共同理解的城市文化地理所组成。土耳其与希腊人于休战期间在城市中邂逅的讽刺描绘, 违背了土耳其围绕着对该城市的领土与历史宣称的焦虑, 亦是对将土耳其与希腊身份认同划分为国族差异的想像地理同时提出质问并强化。本研究描绘族裔国族主义者身份认同形塑的地理与关系性面向, 以及当代中东的城市文化过程在政治归属中的角色。

¿Qué papeles juegan la historia y la memoria en la geopolítica? ¿Cómo influye la experiencia urbana sobre los entendimientos geopolíticos de nuestro lugar en el mundo? Este artículo involucra estas preguntas en un estudio sobre el modo como los ciudadanos turcos otomanos de Estambul llegaron a vincular la etnicidad con el nacionalismo y a ver a sus vecinos griegos ortodoxos como traidores nacionales. Propongo una geopolítica explícitamente cultural: una geopolítica afectiva intrínsecamente crítica que dependa contextualmente de la experiencia, del encuentro y de la memoria del lugar. Mis fuentes son las gacetas humorísticas otomanas de la posguerra publicadas en Estambul, la menguada capital del Imperio Otomano, durante el tiempo de ocupación de las fuerzas Aliadas inmediatamente después de la Primera Guerra Mundial. No se sabía cuál sería la futura soberanía sobre la ciudad y no existía una estructura estatal coherente. Como medios populares normativos (y también subversivos), las gacetas de humor ilustran la reverberación de la geopolítica de la posguerra en los procesos vívidos y recordados del lugar urbano. El sentido de pertenencia etno-nacionalista turco en Estambul era una forma de urbanismo, compuesta de normas de conducta basadas en lugar, y una geografía cultural de la ciudad comúnmente entendida. Las representaciones satíricas de encuentros urbanos de turcos y griegos durante la era del armisticio delatan la ansiedad turca que rodea los reclamos territoriales e históricos de la ciudad, y también un simultáneo cuestionamiento y endurecimiento de las geografías imaginadas que demarcaban las identidades turcas y griegas como nacionalmente distintas. La investigación ilumina las dimensiones topológicas y relacionales de la formación de identidad etno-nacionalista, y del papel de los procesos culturales urbanos en términos de pertenencia política en el Medio Oriente contemporáneo.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to the anonymous reviewers whose suggestions greatly improved this article: Any remaining errors are, of course, my own.

Funding

Research in Turkey was funded by the American Research Institute in Turkey Research Fellowship and the Abney Faculty Fellowship of Women's and Gender Studies at the University of South Carolina.

Notes

1. The population of Istanbul in 1919 “was between one and 1.2 million: 120,000 were Armenian, 380,000 Greek, 45,000 Jewish, and 550,000 Turkish” (Johnson Citation1922, cited in Ekmekcioglu Citation2016, 168).

2. The Allies did not declare the de jure occupation of the city until March 1920 and did not depart until October 1923.

3. Scenes like these are widely depicted in photographs and manuscripts housed at the British Imperial War Museum, the British National Archives, and the Library of Congress.

4. All translations of Ottoman Turkish are by the author.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Amy Mills

AMY MILLS is an Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208. E-mail: [email protected]. Her research interests include the politics of memory and identity in urban cultural landscapes and disciplinarity in the production of knowledge in geography and Middle East studies.

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