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The Environment and Environmental Degradation

Forests in the Anthropocene

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Pages 869-879 | Received 27 Nov 2019, Accepted 14 May 2020, Published online: 21 Oct 2020
 

Abstract

Disturbances have shaped most terrestrial ecosystems for millennia and are natural and essential components of ecological systems. However, direct and indirect human activities during the Anthropocene have amplified disturbances globally. This amplification, coupled with increasingly unfavorable post-disturbance climatic conditions or ecosystem management that intensifies the initial disturbance, is compromising the resilience of some ecosystems, with cascading effects on Earth system function and ecosystem services. Such dynamics are especially prevalent in forests, which are one of the most important ecosystems on Earth and provide countless ecosystem services for people and nonhuman species. Although climate change and its effects are ubiquitous, they do vary spatially in their intensity, and many ecological systems are more affected by changing land use than by changing climate. Understanding the geographic variation in relationships and feedbacks among climate, vegetation, disturbances, regeneration, and human activity is necessary for developing management strategies that will promote forest resilience (i.e., facilitate ecosystems tolerating and recovering from novel or intensified perturbations without shifting to alternative states controlled by different processes). Successful management strategies will vary geographically depending on the degree of departure from the ecological dynamics that preceded the Anthropocene and the spatial variability in drivers of change. As global environmental change accelerates, conservation areas, and the species and ecosystem services that rely on them, are particularly vulnerable. Where disturbances increase, expanding the size of protected areas and minimizing secondary anthropogenic disturbances are likely to be the only ways to maintain the minimum dynamic area that will cultivate adequate resilience.

干扰塑造了千年以来的陆地生态系统,干扰也是生态系统自然的、重要的组成部分。然而,人类世的直接和间接人类活动,在全球范围内加剧了这种干扰。干扰的加剧、持续恶化的后干扰气候条件、强化了干扰的生态管理,这些因素一起削弱了某些生态系统的可塑性,大大影响了地球系统功能和生态系统服务。这些变化在森林尤其突出。森林是最重要的地球生态系统之一,为人类和物种提供了不计其数的生态系统服务。尽管气候变化及其影响无处不在,其强度存在着空间上的差异,许多生态系统受土地利用变化的影响比受环境变化的影响更大。理解气候、植被、干扰、再生和人类活动之间的关系及其反馈在空间上的差异,对于管理策略的制定非常必要,可以提升森林可塑性(即,生态系统能接受新的或强化的干扰,并自我恢复,而不是转变成依赖于各种过程的其它生态状态)。根据人类世之前生态变化的差异程度、变化驱动因素在空间上的差异,成功的管理策略也存在着空间上的不同。随着全球变化的加剧,保护区以及依赖于保护区的物种和生态系统服务,尤其脆弱。在干扰加剧的地方,扩大保护区、保持人类干扰的最小化,有可能是将变化区域保持到最小、培育充分可塑性的唯一方法。

Durante milenios, la mayoría de los ecosistemas terrestres han sido configurados por perturbaciones de diverso orden y éstas son componentes naturales y esenciales de los sistemas ecológicos. Sin embargo, durante el Antropoceno las actividades humanas de manera directa o indirecta han ampliado globalmente las perturbaciones. Esta amplificación, sumada a condiciones climáticas pos-perturbación cada vez más desfavorables, o a la administración ecosistémica que intensifica la perturbación inicial, está comprometiendo la resiliencia de algunos ecosistemas con efectos cascada sobre el modo como funciona el sistema Tierra y sobre los servicios ecosistémicos. Tales dinámicas son especialmente prevalentes en los bosques, uno de los ecosistemas más importantes de la Tierra, que proveen incontables servicios ecosistémicos para la gente y para las especies no humanas. Aunque el cambio climático y sus efectos son ubicuos, sí varían espacialmente en intensidad, y muchos sistemas ecológicos son más afectados por el cambio en el uso del suelo que por el cambio climático. Es necesario entender la variación geográfica en relaciones y retroalimentación entre el clima, la vegetación, las perturbaciones, la regeneración y la actividad humana para desarrollar estrategias de manejo que promuevan la resiliencia del bosque (i.e., facilitar a los ecosistemas la tolerancia y recuperación de perturbaciones nuevas o intensificadas sin cambiar a estados alternos controlados por diferentes procesos). Las estrategias de manejo exitoso variarán geográficamente dependiendo del grado de desviación de la dinámica ecológica que precedió al Antropoceno, y de la variabilidad espacial de los determinantes del cambio. A medida que el cambio ambiental global se acelera son particularmente vulnerables las áreas de conservación y las especies y los servicios ecosistémicos que dependen de ellas. Dondequiera se incrementen las perturbaciones, ampliar el tamaño de las áreas protegidas y minimizar las perturbaciones antropogénicas secundarias posiblemente serán las únicas maneras de mantener el área dinámica mínima que cultivará una resiliencia adecuada.

Acknowledgments

We thank two anonymous referees who reviewed a previous draft of this article. All authors contributed critically to the drafts and gave final approval for publication.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Society of Woman Geographers, Evelyn L. Pruitt National Fellowship for Dissertation Research.

Notes on contributors

Jaclyn Guz

JACLYN GUZ is a PhD Candidate in the Graduate School of Geography at Clark University, Worcester, MA 01610-1477. E-mail: [email protected]. Her research interests include forest dynamics, climate change, and ecosystem management.

Dominik Kulakowski

DOMINIK KULAKOWSKI is a Professor of Geography in the Graduate School of Geography at Clark University, Worcester, MA 01610-1477. E-mail: [email protected]. His research interests are centered on forest ecology and management and include the causes and consequences of forest disturbances, interactions and feedbacks among ecological processes, effects of climate on tree demography, and effective ecosystem management in the face of global environmental change.

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