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Theorizing Displacements

The Power to Stay: Climate, Cocoa, and the Politics of Displacement

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Pages 674-683 | Received 31 Dec 2020, Accepted 19 Aug 2021, Published online: 14 Dec 2021
 

Abstract

Displacement due to environmental hazards such as sea-level rise and extreme weather has long been a prominent theme of climate adaptation and migration research. Although the relationship between climate adaptation and displacement is typically associated with the involuntary relocation of human bodies and livelihoods, in this article I offer an alternative perspective. Through an examination of recent trends in the Indonesian cocoa sector, I argue that fixing labor and capital in place—often in the form of smallholder producers—has emerged as a core strategy for corporate entities to manage the threat of their own economic displacement. Although this strategy enables corporate entities to maintain cocoa production in the face of economic and environmental disruption, the associated loss of smallholder mobility, constrained livelihood options, and new forms of financial dependency increase smallholder vulnerability to economic and environmental impacts associated with climate change. This work highlights emerging tensions between climate adaptation, displacement, and agrarian change while raising new questions concerning who and what is displaced and how in the context of climate adaptation in the Global South.

海平面上升、极端天气等环境灾害造成的迁移, 长期以来一直是气候适应和移民研究的一个重要主题。我们通常将气候适应和迁移之间的关系, 与人体和生活的非自愿搬迁相联系起来。但是, 本文提出了另一个观点。通过考察近来印度尼西亚可可的行业趋势, 我认为, 保有劳动力和资本(通常以小型生产者的形式)成为企业应对自身经济迁移威胁的核心策略。这一策略使得企业能够在经济和环境遭到破坏、小型生产者流动性受到损害、生活选择受到限制等情况下, 仍然能够维持可可的生产。但是, 新形式的金融依赖, 加剧了小型生产者面对气候变化导致的经济和环境影响的脆弱性。本文强调了气候适应、迁移和农业变化之间的紧张关系。同时, 以发展中国家的气候适应为背景, 本文提出了谁在迁移、什么被迁移、如何迁移的新问题。

El desplazamiento ocasionado por peligros ambientales, tales como el ascenso del nivel del mar y las condiciones meteorológicas extremas, ha sido durante varios años tema relevante de las investigaciones sobre adaptación climática y migración. Aunque la relación entre adaptación climática y desplazamiento se asocia típicamente con la relocalización involuntaria de cuerpos humanos y medios de vida, en este artículo ofrezco una perspectiva alternativa. Mediante un examen de las tendencias recientes en el sector cacaotero indonesio, sostengo que ubicar mano de obra y capital en el lugar –a menudo en forma de pequeños productores– ha evolucionado como estrategia principal de las entidades corporativas para abocar la amenaza de su propio desplazamiento económico. Si bien esta estrategia permite a las entidades corporativas mantener la producción de cacao dentro de un contexto de trastornos económicos y ambientales, la pérdida asociada de movilidad de los pequeños agricultores, la limitación de las opciones de subsistencia y las nuevas formas de dependencia financiera aumentan la vulnerabilidad de los pequeños agricultores a los impactos económicos y ambientales asociados con el cambio climático. Este trabajo destaca las tensiones emergentes entre la adaptación climática, el desplazamiento y el cambio agrario, al tiempo que plantea nuevos interrogantes sobre quién y qué se desplaza, y cómo se hace el desplazamiento dentro del contexto de adaptación climática en el Sur Global.

Acknowledgments

I thank the two anonymous reviewers, whose valuable insights and constructive suggestions greatly improved this article from its original version. Special thanks to Camille Frazier, who helped shape my thinking on this topic and offered important words of encouragement. All errors and omissions are my own.

Notes

1 The forest rent thesis (Ruf and Yoddang Citation2001) argues that cocoa cultivation is dependent on “forest rent” in the form of good soil fertility and low levels of pests and disease. As the rent declines over time, the pioneer front experiences falling productivity, declining farm profitability, and eventually industry collapse.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Sean F. Kennedy

SEAN F. KENNEDY is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820. E-mail: [email protected]. His research interests include the political economy of renewable energy development, environmental governance, and agrarian transformation.

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