The physical, technical and tactical demands of on-field training drills in professional Rugby league: a systematic scoping review

ABSTRACT

Objectives

The main objectives of this scoping review were to conduct a systematic search on the physical, technical and tactical demands of rugby league training, consolidate and summarise key findings and identify any existing gaps in knowledge.

Methods

A systematic online search of Scopus, PubMed, MEDLINE and SPORTDiscus was conducted from earliest record to 6 August 2023 and supplemented by manually searching reference lists. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist was followed. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they investigated the physical, technical and/or tactical demands of rugby league training within all levels of competition and included either male or female participants.

Results

The initial search yielded 637 papers, 25 of which were included in the review. Of these studies, the majority (n = 19) exclusively examined the physical demands of training, one paper exclusively examined the technical demands of training, five studies included both physical and technical demands, and no studies examined the tactical demands of training. Small-sided games was the most prevalent drill included within investigations examining the physical and technical demands of various rugby league training drills.

Conclusions

The present review was the first to scope peer-reviewed literature on the multifaceted demands (i.e. physical, technical and tactical) demands of rugby league training. It is apparent that this area is under researched, specifically in literature examining the technical and tactical elements of rugby league training.

Key Points

• Of the available literature examining the multifaceted demands of rugby league training, the majority investigated the physical demands, with a peak of four publications in 2012 and 2022 and an average number of one to two publications per year since its introduction (i.e. 2010). There is only a small number of studies available investigating the technical demands of rugby league training.

• While research has identified the importance of tactics to successful rugby league performance, there has been no investigations on the tactical demands within rugby league training. Accordingly, it is unknown how coaches meet their tactical objectives within training drills and training design to prepare for competition.

• There is a clear gap in research investigating the technical and tactical demands of rugby league training as well as the absence of team-based training drills included within available studies investigating the physical demands. Accordingly, future investigations should prioritise incorporating these elements within their research design.

KEYWORDS:

• Team sports
• monitoring
• GPS
• skill demands
• tactics

Introduction

An essential role of sports scientists within high-performance sport settings, is to develop and deliver evidence-based practices to assist in improving athletic preparation, performance and athlete management processes (Coutts 2017). Following the evidence-based approach, relevant research is utilised to integrate and challenge coaching philosophies and assist the decision-making process of training design and individual needs (Coutts 2017; Foster et al. 2017). To be effective, it is fundamental that sports scientists understand the training and competition demands experienced by athletes. Accordingly, knowledge of the competition demands allows specific and relative training strategies to be planned and implemented to improve and prepare for match performance. As part of this approach, athlete monitoring has become common practice in high performance sport (e.g., athlete wearable technologies and notational analysis). This monitoring is used to systematically identify and analyse objective and subjective indicators (e.g., external training loads, quality and quantity of skills) regarding each athlete’s training, performance and their individual responses to prescribed training loads. The information is then used to identify changes in athlete training ‘readiness’ and performance capacity (Ryan et al. 2020), and inform decisions on prescribed training (Sands et al. 2017).

Rugby league is a high-intensity, contact and invasion-based team sport where players cooperatively interact with each other during distinct ‘moments of performance’ (i.e., attack, defence and transition) throughout an ~80-min period. The overarching aim is to score more points than the opposition by scoring tries (grounding the ball in the opposition’s in-goal area) and kicking goals (Cummins et al. 2013; Hausler et al. 2016; Glassbrook et al. 2019). Teams are allotted 6 consecutive plays (i.e., ‘set’) in attack to establish optimum field position for subsequent sets (by gaining as many field metres as possible) or for try scoring opportunities before possession is turned over to the opposition. Indeed, research spanning various levels of competition in rugby league have identified successful teams gaining more field metres in attack (Gabbett 2014a; Kempton et al. 2016; Woods et al. 2017, 2018). Additionally, the value of possession for all field areas has also been established (Kempton et al. 2016) identifying possessions in attack commencing close to the opposition’s try line increases the likelihood of scoring. As such, coaches and playmakers spend considerable time studying the opposition to create and practice set attacking plays to maximise field territory gains and scoring efficiency, while creating defensive strategies (e.g., kick pressure, defensive line speed) to limit the progression of the opposition and prevent scoring opportunities (Wedding et al. 2021b). Players are required to possess the physical capacities (e.g., lower body strength, anaerobic and aerobic power) to perform high-speed movements, acceleration, deceleration, change of direction and collision activities such as tackling and wrestling when the ball carrier meets the defence line in the field of play (Gabbett 2013c; Cummins and Orr 2015). The physical demands of rugby league performance have been well-documented in literature (Hausler et al. 2016; Glassbrook et al. 2019). To advance the ball down the field, players utilise technical skills such as quick play-the-balls and passing (whereby the ball must travel backwards to a teammate) to evade or disrupt the oncoming defence line and achieve desired field positions for subsequent attacking plays. Additionally, players employ a range of kicking techniques to set up try scoring opportunities (e.g., short crossfield or grubber kick), or return possession to the opposition as close to their own try line as possible through longer kicks.

Like all team sports, rugby league players must cooperatively interact with each other to develop a style-of-play and structured network (e.g., defensive line organisation based on field position of the ruck, positioning and running patterns of attacking players) to respond cohesively to the opposition during attack, defence and transition moments (Hewitt et al. 2016; Ribeiro et al. 2017; Woods et al. 2018). While previous literature has identified technical-tactical performance indicators such as fewer missed tackles, kick-metres (Gabbett 2014a; Kempton et al. 2016; Woods et al. 2017) and ‘amount of possession’ (e.g., number of plays, metres gained) (Parmar et al. 2018) associated with successful performance, recent frameworks have been developed to incorporate the ‘dynamic’ and ‘non-linear’ performance environment through an ecological approach (Woods et al. 2019, 2020; Scott et al. 2021). These frameworks shift away from a ‘siloed approach’ to preparation and performance, and consider the interplay of individuals with the task and environment (i.e., complex adaptive system (Scott et al. 2021)) and recognise how information processing leads to action opportunities (i.e., perceived affordances) and subsequent actions (i.e., affordance realisation). Accordingly, when individuals are attuned to these shared affordances in a team environment and have the capabilities to execute, coordinated behaviour (Scott et al. 2021) and team synergy (Silva et al. 2013) emerge.

To ultimately prepare for competition, coaches implement a specific game plan and tactical approach based on offensive and defensive principles, and strategies within attack (e.g., player roles and positioning), defence (e.g., line speed and organisation) and transition (e.g., kick pressure, kick placement) moments (Delgado-Bordonau and Mendez-Villanueva 2012; Hewitt et al. 2016). Although coaches may modify their tactical approach based on perceived player strengths, capabilities and the opposition, players are required to conform to the desired tactical approach to create an organised system (Ribeiro et al. 2017). Ultimately, team performance in rugby league is reliant on the collective interplay of physical, technical (individual skill) and tactical (interaction with other individuals) abilities of team members (Figure 1) (Impellizzeri and Marcora 2009). Accordingly, training is deliberately designed to develop, prepare and improve these areas of performance (Anders Ericsson et al. 1993).

Figure 1. The multifaceted relationship between physical, technical and tactical constructs of rugby league performance embedded within the relationship between performance and training.

At the professional level, rugby league coaches and support staff carefully prescribe training to prepare players for the specific demands of competition, including developing training drills specific to the varying roles within a team and organising team structures against varying match scenarios and upcoming oppositions (Kelly and Coutts 2007). Training drills are designed, implemented and manipulated to develop the desired style of play and practice the physical, technical and tactical elements required to execute the necessary strategies. Strategic actions such as player positioning and running patterns are carefully planned within these training drills. To assist with training prescription, sports scientists implement athlete monitoring systems to provide objective evidence of performance and recovery to coaches (Saw et al. 2016; Foster et al. 2017; Thorpe et al. 2017). Furthermore, with the growing integration of sports scientists within coaching and sub-disciplinary departments, there is a shift for monitoring systems to not only account for the physical work completed, but also provide a multidisciplinary and holistic approach to information relating to the skill requirements and tactical approaches within training (Foster et al. 2017). Indeed, integrating information from sub-disciplinary departments (e.g., notational analysis and semi-automated coding video-playbacks from sports analysts (Farrow and Robertson 2016)) can enrich ones understanding of the performance environment and fosters a collaborative and co-design approach to developing representative training programs (Otte et al. 2020; Scott et al. 2021; Woods et al. 2021). This integrated approach can be used to quantify and evaluate training and athlete’s responses in relation to implemented periodisation frameworks.

Rugby league performance is composed of physical, technical and tactical capabilities (Gabbett 2014a; Kempton et al. 2016, 2016). Training is designed to prepare players to withstand these demands and effectively execute necessary actions within these constructs. Understanding the training demands provides important insight into how teams prepare for the multifaceted demands of performance. Coaches and sports scientists could both benefit from this information to assist in training design and adopt a holistic approach to training prescription and preparation. However, at present, the available literature regarding the physical, technical and tactical demands within rugby league training has not been reviewed. For these reasons, a scoping review was conducted to systematically search the available literature on the physical, technical and tactical demands of rugby league training. The main objectives were to examine the extent and nature of studies investigating this topic, summarise key findings and identify any existing gaps in knowledge.

Materials and methods

Design and search strategy

The protocol for this scoping review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist (http://www.prisma-statement.org/Extensions/ScopingReviews.) (Appendix 1) (Tricco et al. 2018) with a review protocol and pre-registration not available for this review. A systematic online search of electronic databases (Scopus (146), PubMed (134), MEDLINE (146), and SPORTDiscus (190)) was performed from earliest record to 6 August 2023. The search strategy combined the terms: ‘rugby league’ OR ‘rugby league training’ AND terms relevant to the physical, technical and tactical demands: ‘physical demands’ OR ‘physical exertion’ OR ‘physical performance’ OR ‘technical demands’ OR ‘skill demands’ OR ‘technical performance’ OR ‘tactical demands’ OR ‘tactics’ OR ‘tactical performance’. The online search was supplemented by manually exploring the reference lists of selected articles.

Study selection

Retrieved studies from the online search were downloaded to Endnote (X9.3.3, Clarivate Analytics, Australia) and duplicates were removed. Titles and abstracts were independently reviewed by two researchers (JW, AC) against the eligibility criteria (Table 1). Articles, which could not be eliminated by the title or abstract were retrieved and evaluated for inclusion via a full-text review against the eligibility criteria. Disagreements between researchers were consulted and resolved via a third researcher (KS) throughout the study selection process.

Table 1. Applied inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Male and female participants All levels of competition (junior, semi-professional, professional) All Australian and overseas competitions On-field rugby league training sessions or training drills >1 physical (measured by GPS), technical or tactical outcome measure	Reviews, opinion pieces, conference articles Non-English papers Unable to retrieve full-text articles No GPS, technical or tactical on-field measures reported as part of a testing battery investigations Outcome measures reported to describe testing battery protocol

> more than, GPS Global Positioning System.

Data extraction and categorisation

For the purpose of this scoping review, primary categories were formed based on the distinct, but interrelated physical, technical and tactical elements present in team sport performance (Impellizzeri and Marcora 2009). Accordingly, studies were first organised within each category as per the following descriptions:

• Physical: external load (i.e., training exposure) of an individual or team

• Technical: acquisition and execution of rugby league related individual or team skills e.g., passing, tackling, kicking, play-the-balls

• Tactical: interactions with other team members to execute strategic actions

Subcategories were successively formed based on observation period and types of training drills (indicated by study aims) included within their design to highlight how research has addressed these areas within rugby league training. All eligible articles were reviewed and categorised by authors (JW, AC) with any disagreements resolved via the third researcher (KS). General characteristics of each study including; publication year, cohort competition, number of participants, sample size, observation period, number of files, GPS device/method and geography were extracted. Data relating to the aims, outcome measures and key findings of each study were also extracted for each study.

Data charting and synthesis

Extracted data regarding was compiled into an Excel spreadsheet (version 16.16.27, Microsoft Office, Australia) and data charts were independently formed by the primary author (JW) and reviewed and confirmed with researchers (AC, KS). Continuous data such as publication year was charted using line charts (Figure 3) and categorical data such as cohort competition and geography was charted as pie charts to display quantity and proportion. Data charts were created according to each theme (i.e., physical, technical and tactical).

Characteristics, main outcomes and a summary of the key findings were tabularised for each theme via an Excel spreadsheet (version 16.16.27, Microsoft Office, Australia) Where appropriate, data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD), mean (95% confidence intervals (CI)) or mean (range) unless otherwise stated. No further analysis or conversion of outcome metrics was conducted.

Results

Search and selection of studies

The primary search of literature examining the physical, technical and tactical demands of training captured 616 papers with 21 additional papers identified through other sources. Following the removal of duplicates and ineligible manuscripts, 25 papers were included in this review (Figure 2). Of these studies, 19 (76%) exclusively examined the physical demands of training, one (4%) exclusively examined the technical demands of training, five (20%) studies included both physical and technical demands, and no studies examined the tactical demands of training.

Figure 2. Selection process of eligible studies for this review.

General characteristics

Figure 3 demonstrates the number of publications of studies examining the physical, technical and tactical demands of rugby league training with the first publication dated back to 2010. The number of publications examining the physical demands peaked (n = 4) in 2012 and again in 2022, with an average of one to two studies published for the remaining years. The maximum number of publications on the technical demands of rugby league training was identified in 2012 (n = 2) and 2016 (n = 2).

Figure 3. Publications of the physical, technical and tactical demands of rugby league training per year.

Of all studies examining the physical demands of rugby league training (n = 24), 13 studies (54%) were from Australian-based competitions (includes teams from Australia and New Zealand), nine studies (38%) were from competitions United Kingdom (UK)-based competitions (includes teams from UK and France) and two studies (8%) did not disclose the geography of competition. The majority of studies investigating the technical demands of rugby league training were from Australian competitions (n = 5, 83%) while the remaining study (n = 1, 17%) did not disclose the geography of competition.

The number and proportion of competition levels examined resulted in the majority of studies examining the physical demands of rugby league training were within the professional level of competition (n = 16, 67%), followed by junior (n = 5, 25%) and semi-professional (n = 3, 13%) competitions respectively. An equal number of studies examining the technical demands of rugby league training in professional and junior competitions was observed (n = 3, 45%) followed by semi-professional competitions (n = 1, 14%). Additionally, 24 of the 25 studies (96%) involved participants from competitions with male rugby league players, while 1 study (4%) did not specifically disclose.

Physical performance

Competition phase

Twenty-four studies examined distance, speed and acceleration parameters to describe the physical demands of rugby league training or training drills within junior (n = 6, 25%) (Gabbett et al. 2012; Johnston et al. 2014a, 2014b; Sampson et al. 2015; Dobbin et al. 2021; Moore et al. 2022), semi-professional (n = 3, 13%) (Johnston et al. 2015, 2016; Weaving et al. 2017) and professional (n = 16, 67%) (Gabbett et al. 2010, 2010, 2012, 2012a, 2012b; Gabbett and Ullah 2012; Lovell et al. 2013; Weaving et al. 2014, 2020, 2020; Cummins et al. 2017; Twist et al. 2017; Black et al. 2018; Crang et al. 2022; Fairbank et al. 2022; Parmley et al. 2022) competitions (Table 2). Characteristics of these studies displayed that 14 out of 24 (58%) exclusively examined the physical demands within pre-season phases (including pre-competition phase) (Gabbett et al. 2012, 2012a; Johnston et al. 2014a, 2014b, 2015, 2016; Weaving et al. 2014, 2017, 2020, 2020; Cummins et al. 2017; Moore et al. 2022; Crang et al. 2022; Fairbank et al. 2022), with 5 studies (21%) observing the physical demands across the whole season (pre-season and competition phases) (Gabbett et al. 2010, 2012b; Gabbett and Ullah 2012; Lovell et al. 2013; Black et al. 2018). Findings have also displayed greater training duration and load measures such as total distance and high speed running distance within pre-season phases compared to in-season periods (early-, mid-, late-) (Black et al. 2018). Additionally, while the majority of physical parameters remained similar throughout in-season phases, a further reduction of total and relative high-speed running distance was observed during late in-season. Another study examined the number of collisions and associated injury incidences during the whole season, reporting a greater number of collisions and injury rates during training sessions with 10 days recovery between matches compared to shorter turnarounds (Gabbett et al. 2010). Greater collision injury rates also occurred during pre-season periods (9.3 per 10,000 collisions) than in-season (4.2 per 10,000 collisions) (Gabbett et al. 2010).

Table 2. Characteristics of studies examining the physical demands of on-field training drills in rugby league.

Study	Study Aims	Comp.	Participants = n	Observation period = n of training sessions	Files = n	GPS Device	GPS Outcome Measures	Physical Demands of Training Results Overview
Black, et al(2018)	To compare differences in external training loads during field-based training sessions at different stages of the season (i.e. pre- vs. early, mid and late in-season)	ESL	11 F = 4 B = 5	Whole season 11 week pre-season = 3.5 ± 1.2 per week 11 week early = 2.5 ± 0.7 per week 11 week middle = 2.4 ± 0.7 per week 11 week late = 2.8 ± 0.6 per week	Total = 782 Pre- = 211 Early = 194 Middle = 171 Late = 206	10 Hz (STATSports Viper Pod, STATSports Technologies LTD)	Session duration (min), total distance (m, m.min^−1), walking ([m] 0.01–1.59 m.s^1), jogging ([m] 1.60–2.69 m.s^1), cruising ([m] 2.70–3.79 m.s^1), striding ([m] 3.80–4.99 m.s^1), HSR ([m] 5.00–5.49 m.s^1), sprinting ([m] >5.50 m.s^1) distance, total-HSR ([m, m.min^1] HSR + sprinting)	Training loads (with the exception of distance (m.min^−1) and total-HSR (m.min^−1), were greater in pre-season compared to in-season periods. A reduction in duration and total-HSR observed in-season compared to pre-season. A further reduction in total-HSR (m, m.min^1) observed in late in-season.
Crang, et al. (2022)	To investigate the relationship between preseason training load, technical match performance, and physical match activity profiles	NRL	22	12–14 week pre-season = 32.5 ± 8.5 sessions	NR	10 Hz interpolated to 15 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (EVO; GPSports, Canberra, Australia)	Distance (m.min^−1), HSR ([m, m.min^−1], >68% of 30–15 IFT)	Players covered an average distance of 150,130 ± 55,058 m across preseason sessions with 14,502 ± 6,765 m high-speed running. Moderate-large positive association of pre-season HSR load (m) and HSR (m.min^−1) match activity in early-, mid- and late-season.
Cummins et al. (2017)	To quantify external training loads by position and varying training drills (speed, conditioning, generic, positional) across a preseason	NRL	33 OB = 9 Adj = 9 WRF = 9 HUF = 6	8 week pre-season = NR	NR	10 Hz interpolated to 15 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (High Performance Unit, GPSports, Canberra, Australia)	Drill duration (min), distance (m, m.min^−1), HSR ([m, m.min^1] 15–20 km.h^−1), VHSR ([m, m.min^1] >20 km.h^−1), 2D BodyLoad (AU, AU.min^1)	The greatest distance was achieved in week 3 of pre-season (17,888 ± 6,591 m). HSR in week 1 (3,296 ± 1,124 m) and week 3 (3,152 ± 1,095 m) were higher than week 2, 7 and 8. VHSR was highest in week 5 (1087 ± 624 m), achieved largely (74%) through during conditioning drills (811 ± 405 m). A reduction in total distance, HSR and VHSR, 2D BodyLoad from weeks 1 to 8 in speed, conditioning, and generic drills was observed. Increases in duration, distance, HSR, VHSR, 2D BodyLoad in positional skills was observed. Minimal differences between positional groups for conditioning, speed and generic drills was observed. HUF reported greater 2D BodyLoad (AU, AU.min^1) and OB reported greater HSR + VHSR (m, m.min^1) within positional-based drills.
Dobbin et al (2021)	To determine if SSGs could be designed to target specific task loads (physical, technical, temporal, cognitive, frustration) and quantify the subjective task loads via NASA-TLX questionnaire. Determine the association between physical and technical demands within each task load.	Elite Junior	26	NR = 1	130	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer (Optimeye S5; Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Distance (m), very low (0–1 m·s^−1), low- (1–3 m·s^−1), moderate- (3–5 m·s^−1), HSR- (5–7 m·s^−1), and VHSR- (>7 m·s^−1) distance (m), accelerations ([m.min^−1] >3 m·s^−2), decelerations ([m.min^−1] >3 m·s^−2), PlayerLoad (AU), HMP distance ([m] >20 W·kg^−1), and peak velocity [m·s^−1].	Total distance, HSR and VHSR were positively associated with physical load, effort, performance, and total load. HSR negatively associated with technical, frustration, and cognitive load. VHSR negatively associated with technical load and frustration. For every meter covered at VHSR, physical, temporal, effort, performance and total load would increase by 2–4 AU. Very low-speed was positively associated with effort, technical and frustration load. Peak velocity was positively associated with all measures of load except effort. Accelerations positively associated with all but temporal and cognitive load. HMP reported negative associations with physical, cognitive, and performance loads.
(Fairbank et al. 2022)	To describe the demands and content of training from a championship-winning team	ESL	31 HUF = 9 WRF = 6 Adj = 8 OB = 8	8 week pre-season = 31	641	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer (Optimeye S5; Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), HSR ([m] >15 km.h^−1), HMP distance ([m] >20 W.kg^−1)	Total distance, HSR and HMP distance increased from week 1 to week 4, where HSR and HMP peaked. A decrease was observed for outcome measures in week 5, and then increased in week 6, where total distance peaked. Weeks 1–3 and week 7 primarily focused on skill training and conditioning, while weeks 4–6 and week 8 focused on game-based training.
(Gabbett et al. 2010)	To describe the number and intensity of collisions and relate to recovery periods	NRL	30	Whole season (pre-season + in-season) = 117	NR	5 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (minimaxX, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Total (n, n.min^−1), mild (n, n.min^−1), moderate (n, n.min^−1), and heavy (n, n.min^−1) collisions	A total of 57,966 collisions were recorded across the season. Average number of training collisions performed by HUF, WRF, Adj and OB were 23, 20, 18, 16 respectively. HUF were involved in more mild (n) collisions than OB, and more moderate (n) and total (n) collisions than OB and Adj. 60% and 9% of training collisions were classified as moderate and heavy collisions respectively.
(Gabbett et al. 2010)	To investigate the physical and skill demands of ‘on-side’ and ‘off-side’ SSG	NRL	16	Competition phase = 2	NR	5 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (minimaxX, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), mild ([m] 0.55–1.11 m·s^−2), moderate ([m] 1.12–2.78 m·s^−2) and maximal ([m] ≥ 2.79 m·s^−2), very-low ([m] 0–1 m·s^−1), low ([m] 1–3 m·s^−1), moderate ([m] 3–5 m·s^−1), HSR ([m] 5–7 m·s^−1), and VHSR ([m] >7 m·s^−1) distance, short (<30 seconds), moderate (30–120 seconds) and long (>120 seconds) recovery between efforts	‘Off-side’ SSG resulted in greater total distance (m, m.min^−1), mild and moderate accelerations and low, moderate and HSR distance and short duration recovery periods.
(Gabbett et al. 2012)	To investigate the effect of field size changes on the physiological and skill demands on ‘off-side’ SSG	Elite Junior and NRL	Elite junior = 16 NRL = 16	Pre-competition phase = 2	NR	5 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (minimaxX, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), very-low ([m] 0–1 m·s^−1), low ([m] 1–3 m·s^−1), moderate ([m] 3–5 m·s^−1), HSR ([m] 5–7 m·s^−1), and VHSR ([m] >7 m·s^−1) distance, short (<30 seconds), moderate (30–120 seconds) and long (>120 seconds) recovery between efforts	Larger field SSG resulted in greater total distance (m, m.min^−1), moderate, HSR and VHSR distance compared to smaller fields. NRL players covered more moderate, HSR and VHSR distance and less low and very-low distance compared to junior players. NRL players had less shorter duration recovery periods on a smaller field and less recovery durations on larger sized fields.
(Gabbett et al. 2012a)	To investigate the influence of wrestling on the physical and skill demands of SSG	NRL	28	Pre-competition phase = 2	NR	5 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (minimaxX Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), mild ([m] 0.55–1.11 m·s^−2), moderate ([m] 1.12–2.78 m·s^−2) and maximal ([m] ≥ 2.79 m·s^−2) accelerations, very-low ([m] 0–1 m·s^−1), low ([m] 1–3 m·s^−1), moderate ([m] 3–5 m·s^−1), HSR ([m] 5–7 m·s^−1), and VHSR ([m] >7 m·s^−1) distance, short (<30 seconds), moderate (30–120 seconds) and long (>120 seconds) recovery between efforts, RHIE bouts (n)	No-wrestling SSG resulted in greater total distance (m, m.min^−1), and distance covered at low, moderate, HSR, and VHSR speed. Wrestling SSG reported greater mild, moderate, and maximal acceleration distance, greater RHIE, very-low distance and fewer number of short duration recovery periods.
(Gabbett et al. 2012b)	To compare the physical demands of match-play to traditional conditioning, RHIE, skills and game-based training drills	NRL	30	Whole season = 124	Total = 786 HUF = 212 WRF = 225 Adj = 29 OB = 29	5 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (Team 2.5, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), low ([m] 1–5 m·s^−1), HSR ([m] >5 m·s^−1), distance, RHIE bouts (n), duration (s) and recovery (s), total (n, n.min^−1), mild (n, n.min^−1), moderate (n, n.min^−1), and heavy (n, n.min^−1) collisions	Distance in traditional conditioning exceeded match-play (164 [160–169] m.min^−1 vs. 96 [93–99] m.min^−1). Distance in RHIE drills (91 ((Gabbett and Hulin 2018)-)99] m.min^−1) and skills (58 (Gabbett et al. 2011; Bennett et al. 2016; Parmley et al. 2022) m.min^−1) were lower than match-play. Collisions and RHIE demands of traditional conditioning and skills were lower than match-play. Distance in game-based training (137 [133–141] m.min^−1) exceeded match-play. Moderate collisions (n.min^−1) of game-based training was similar to match-play, while heavy collisions was lower than match-play.
(Gabbett and Ullah 2012)	To report on the running demands of training and investigate the relative risk of low- and high- intensity activities on lower body soft-tissue injury	NRL	34	Whole season = 117	NR	5 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (minimaxX, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), mild ([m] 0.55–1.11 m·s^−2), moderate ([m] 1.12–2.78 m·s^−2) and maximal ([m] ≥ 2.79 m·s^−2) accelerations, very-low ([m] 0–1 m·s^−1), low ([m] 1–3 m·s^−1), moderate ([m] 3–5 m·s^−1), HSR ([m] 5–7 m·s^−1), VHSR ([m] >7 m·s^−1) distance and total HSR ([m], HSR + VHSR), RHIE bouts (n)	Total distance was higher in pre-season (4003 [971–6750]* m) compared to early- (3923 [609–11058]* m) and late-season (3449 [1219–6592]* m) phases.
(Johnston et al. 2014a)	To assess the influence of physical contact on fatigue and muscle damage following SSG	Elite Junior	23	Pre-season = 2	NR	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer, gyroscope and magnometre (Team S4; Catapult Sports, VIC, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), low ([m, m.min^−1] 0–5 m·s^−1), and HSR ([m, m.min^−1] >5.1 m·s^−1) distance, RHIE (n)	With the exception of RHIE, all variables were greater in non-contact SSG compared to contact SSG.
(Johnston et al. 2014b)	To determine the influence of contact on running performance during SSG	Elite Junior	23	Pre-season = 2	NR	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer, gyroscope and magnometre (Team S4; Catapult Sports, VIC, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), low ([m, m.min^−1] 0–5 m·s^−1), and HSR ([m, m.min^−1] >5.1 m·s^−1) distance, RHIE (n), 2D PlayerLoad (AU)	Greater distance (139 [134–144] m.min^−1) and low speed distance (120 [116–124] m.min^−1) was reported in non-contact SSG compared to contact SSG. Only small differences were observed for HSR (m, m.min^−1) between contact and non-contact SSG. 2D PlayerLoad was greater during contact SSG compared to non-contact SSG (0.20 [0.19–0.21] vs. 0.11 [0.11–0.12] AU).
(Johnston et al. 2015)	To examine the influence of performing single-, double-, or triple contact efforts in a single bout on the physical demands during ‘off-sided’ SSG	Semi-pro.	18	Pre-season = 1	NR	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz accelerometers and gyroscopes (Team S4, Catapult Sports, VIC, Australia)	Distance (m.min^−1), % change in low-speed activity (0–3.5 m·s^−1), moderate-speed running (3.6–5.0 m·s^−1), and HSR (≥5.1 m·s^−1), PlayerLoad Slow ([AU], <2 m·s^−1)	Little difference was observed for distance (m.min^−1) between the single-, double-, and triple-contact games. Small changes in distance (m.min^−1) from first to second half were observed in single- and double contact games. Distance (m.min^−1) in the second half of the double- and triple contact games were lower than the second half of the single-contact game. As the number of contact efforts increased, greater reductions in HSR was observed. PlayerLoad Slow increased with the contact demands of each game.
(Johnston et al. 2016)	To determine the impact of different RHIE bouts on running intensities, skill involvements, and neuromuscular fatigue during SSG.	QC	22	Pre-season = 4	NR	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (Catapult S5; Catapult Sports, VIC, Australia)	Distance (m.min^−1), low ([m.min^−1 0–3.5 m·s^−1), moderate ([m.min^−1] 3.6–5.0 m·s^−1), and HSR ([m.min^−1] >5.1 m·s^−1) distance and PlayerLoad Slow ([AU] <2 m·s^−1)	Contact-dominant RHIE bouts reduced running intensity during SSG compared to running-dominant RHIE activity.
(Lovell et al. 2013)	To examine the validity of sRPE for monitoring training intensity in conditioning, skills, skills-conditioning, speed and wrestle training	NRL	32	Whole season = 75.2 ± 25.7 sessions	Total = 2400 Conditioning = 398 Skills = 1097 Skills-conditioning = 365 Speed = 262 Wrestle = 278	5 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer (SPI Pro, GPSports, Canberra, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), HSR ([m, m.min^−1] >15 km.h^−1), impacts ([n, n.min^−1] >5 g), Body Load (AU, AU.min^−1)	Average training session loads for distance, HSR, impacts and Body Load were 2801 ± 1578 m, 392 ± 316 m, 451 ± 493 and 63,466 ± 70,409 AU respectively. Average training session intensity for distance, HSR, impacts and BodyLoad were 79 ± 38 m.min^−1, 12 ± 12 m.min^−1, 13 ± 15 n.min^−1, 1903 ± 2127 AU.min^−1 respectively.
(Moore et al. 2022)	To quantify the field and resistance training demands of academy rugby league players	Elite Junior	28 F = 13 B = 15	13 week pre-season = 13 ± 7 sessions	NR	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (Optimeye S5; Catapult Sports, VIC, Australia	Distance (m, m.min^−1), HSR ([m] >5.1 m·s^−1), acceleration density (m.s^−2), PlayerLoad (AU), tackles (n)	Players averaged 4180 ± 1337 m of total distance at a rate of 77.3 ± 21 m.min^−1, 516 ± 449 m of HSR, acceleration density of 1.59 ± 1.44 m.s^−2, PlayerLoad of 414 ± 139 AU and 10 ± 10 tackles per field session, with limited differences between positional groups.
(Parmley et al. 2022)	To quantify and compare training demands between different between-match microcycle lengths. To determine the variation of training demands due to microcyle, individual and head coach.	ESL	54 F = 31 B = 23	4 × competition phase	Total = 4337 (80 ± 55 per player)	10 Hz with in-built 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope (Catapult S5; Catapult Sports, VIC, Australia)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), HSR ([m, m.min^−1] 5–7 m·s^−1), sprint distance ([m, m.min^−1] > 7 m·s^−1), acceleration + deceleration distance ([m, m.min^−1] >2 m.s^−2)	5-day microcyles exhibited smaller training demands for all variables than longer (>7-day) microcycles. A higher volume of HSD ES = 0.23 to 0.53 and sprint distance (ES = 0.2 to 0.41) was observed during longer microcycles. The variability of external training demands between microcycles ranged between 11–35%, with between head coach variability ranging from 5–20%.
(Sampson et al. 2015)	To investigate the impact of bout duration on pacing during small-sided games.	Amateur junior	14	9-day period = 8	NR	10 Hz (SP4 minimaxX, Catapult Sports, Melbourne, Australia)	Total distance at low (0–25%), moderate (25–50%), high (50–70%) and very high (>70%) speed relative to each individuals’ peak speed (m.s^−1). Distances at low (20–45%), moderate (45–85%) and high (>85%) acceleration relative to each individuals’ peak acceleration (m.s^−2)	An increase in moderate, high and very high-speed and acceleration activities were observed during games of shorter bout duration.
(Twist et al. 2017)	To understand any cumulative fatigue responses from training and match demands during a congested-fixture period	ESL	15 F = 8 Adj = 3 B = 4	22-day congested period = 9	NR	10 Hz (Viper pod 2, STATSports, Belfast, UK)	Distance (m, m.min^−1), low ([m.min^−1] <5.4 m.s^−1), HSR ([m.min^−1] ≥5.5 m.s^−1), accelerometer load (AU)	Average distances covered in training sessions were 57 ± 12 m.min^−1. Average HSR and low-speed distance in training sessions were 2.8 ± 1.6 and 56 ± 7 m.min^−1 respectively.
(Weaving et al. 2014)	To examine the influence of training mode (SSG, conditioning, skills, speed, strongman, wrestle) on the relationship of common training load measures	ESL	17	2 × 12-week preseason = 42 ± 13 sessions	Total = 716 SSG = 88 Skills = 263 Conditioning = 170 Speed = 99 Strongman = 60 Wrestle = 41	5 Hz interpolated to 15 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer (SPI Pro XII, GPSports, Canberra, Australia)	Duration (min), HSR ([m], 15 km.h^−1), impacts ([n] >5 g), Body Load (AU)	HSR (m) for SSG, skills, conditioning, speed, strongman and wrestle drills were as follows: 479 ± 472, 252 ± 222, 797 ± 512, 232 ± 159, 60 ± 93 and 54 ± 77. BodyLoad (AU) for SSG, skills, conditioning, speed, strongman and wrestle were as follows: 79 ± 85, 36 ± 33, 93 ± 73, 28 ± 18, 9 ± 13 and 11 ± 9. Impacts (n) for SSG, skills, conditioning, speed, strongman and wrestle drills were as follows: 1835 ± 1819, 1069 ± 965, 3202 ± 2490, 603 ± 400, 391 ± 428 and 269 ± 261. A combination of internal and external load measures explain a greater proportion of variation within training drills, rather than internal or external measures independently.
(Weaving et al. 2017)	To examine the influence of training mode (conditioning and skills) on common measures of training load	KPC	23	12-week preseason = 28 ± 5 sessions	Total = 640 Skills = 448 Conditioning = 192	10 Hz with in-built 100 Hz tri-axial accelerometer (Optimeye X4, Catapult Innovations, Scoresby, Victoria)	Duration (min), HSR ([m], >speed achieved in 30–15 IFT [19.6 ± 0.6 km.h^−1]), PlayerLoad (AU)	HSR (m) for skills and conditioning were as follows: 202 ± 265 and 559 ± 455. PlayerLoad (AU) for skills and conditioning were as follows: 351 ± 150 and 232 ± 81. A single component explained 56.6% of the variance within skill drills and two components explained 85.4% of the variance within conditioning drills.
(Weaving et al. 2020)	To investigate the relative contribution of duration and intensity to training load	ESL	10	6 week pre-season = 19 ± 4 sessions	197	5 Hz interpolated to 15 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer (SPI Pro XII, GPSports, Canberra, Australia)	Duration (min), distance (m, m.min^−1), BodyLoad (AU, AU.min^−1)	Average session duration was 44 ± 16 min. Average training load for distance and BodyLoad were 3069 ± 1451 m and 63.3 ± 48 AU respectively. The average training intensity for distance and BodyLoad were 70.1 ± 21.8 m.min^−1 and 1.5 ± 1.0 AU.min^−1 respectively. The majority of variability in training load (60–70%) was explained by session duration.
(Weaving et al. 2020)	To establish the magnitude of difference in training load methods across conditioning, SSG, skills and speed training	ESL	17	2 × 12-week preseason = 42 ± 13 sessions	Total = 716 SSG = 111 Conditioning = 194 Skills = 287 Speed = 124	5 Hz interpolated to 15 Hz with in-built 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer (SPI Pro XII, GPSports, Canberra, Australia)	Duration (min), walking ([m.min^−1], 0–1.94 m.s^−1), jogging ([m.min^−1] 1.95–3.87 m.s^−1), striding ([m.min^−1] 3.88–5.4 m.s^−1), sprinting ([m.min^−1] ≥5.5 m.s^−1) and HSR ([m.min^−1] striding + sprinting). Low- ([m.min^−1] 0–9.9 W.kg^−1), intermediate- ([m.min^−1] 10–19.9 W.kg^−1), high- ([m.min^−1] 20–34.9 W.kg^−1), elevated- ([m.min^−1] 35–54.9 W.kg^−1), max-power ([m.min^−1] ≥55 W.kg^−1) and HMP distance ([m.min^−1] high-, elevated- and max-power)	Players covered greater distance (m.min^−1) at moderate velocities (1.95–5.49 m.s^−1) and metabolic power (10–34.9 W.kg^−1) during conditioning drills than SSG. All speed-derived variables were lower in skill drills than conditioning and SSG drills. Players in SSG and skill drills covered greater distances at HMP (≥20 W.kg^−1) than high-speed (≥5.5 m.s^−1) displaying a greater proportion of ‘high intensity’ movement through accelerating and decelerating.

Results expressed as mean ± SD, mean (95% confidence intervals) or *mean (range).

% percentage 2D 2-dimensional Adj. adjustables (halfback, five-eighth, hooker and fullback positions), AU arbitrary units, AU.min⁻¹ arbitrary units per minute, comp. competition, ESL European Super League (professional), F forwards, g g-force, GPS Global Positioning System, HMP high-metabolic power, HSR high-speed running, HUF hit-up forwards (props and lock positions), Hz hertz, IFT intermittent fitness test, KPC Kingston Press Championship (semi-professional), m metre, m.min⁻¹ metres per minute, min minute, n number, n.min⁻¹ number per minute, NR not reported, NRL National Rugby League (professional), OB outside back (wing and centre positions), sRPE session rating of perceived exertion QC Queensland Cup (semi-professional), RHIE repeated high-intensity effort, s second, Semi-pro. semi-professional, SSG small-sided games, VHSR very high-speed running, W watts, W.kg⁻¹ watts per kilogram, WRF wide-running forwards (second row positions)

Training drills

Fifteen out of the 24 studies (63%) (Gabbett et al. 2010, 2012, 2012a, 2012b; Lovell et al. 2013; Johnston et al. 2014a, 2014b, 2015, 2016; Weaving et al. 2014, 2017, 2020; Sampson et al. 2015; Cummins et al. 2017; Dobbin et al. 2021) investigated the physical demands of various training drills. These studies assessed positional differences (Cummins et al. 2017), evaluated the validity of training load and monitoring measures (Lovell et al. 2013; Weaving et al. 2014, 2017, 2020) or examined the effect of various constraints of game-based activities (Gabbett et al. 2010, 2012, 2012a; Johnston et al. 2014a, 2014b, 2015, 2016; Sampson et al. 2015; Dobbin et al. 2021). Only one study has compared the physical demands of professional rugby league training and match demands to identify training activities useful for physical match preparation (Gabbett et al. 2012b). In this previous study, distance, speed and collision-based parameters were analysed within common on-field training drills (traditional conditioning, repeated high-intensity effort, game-based and skills) used to prepare players for the overall match demands of the National Rugby League (NRL) competition. The physical demands of game-based training provided significant comparisons to match performance by exceeding the running demands (137 vs. 96 m·min⁻¹), number of repeated high-intensity effort bouts (RHIE) (1 every 4.5 min vs. 1 every 6.9 min) and rate of moderate collisions (0.38 vs. 0.34 no·min⁻¹).

Of greater prevalence, nine of the 15 studies (60%) exclusively examined physical parameters within various small-sided games (SSG) including constraints in contact (Gabbett et al. 2012a; Johnston et al. 2014a, 2014b, 2015), on-side and off-side rules (Gabbett et al. 2010) field size (Gabbett et al. 2012), bout duration (Sampson et al. 2015) and task load targets (physical, technical, cognitive, frustration, temporal) (Dobbin et al. 2021). Findings from these studies showed ‘non-contact’ SSGs allowed greater total distance and high-speed running distances to be achieved than ‘contact’ SSG. While contact SSGs elicited a greater number of accelerations, RHIE and PlayerLoad variables (2D and Slow) (Johnston et al. 2014b). Additionally, distances above very high-speed thresholds were reported to be negatively associated with technical and frustration load (i.e., distractions caused by incorrect calls by the officials) but increased physical, temporal, effort, performance and total load within elite junior athletes (Dobbin et al. 2021).

Technical performance

Training drills

Six studies have examined the frequency of skill involvements (i.e., receives, passes, efficiency and errors) within rugby league training (Gabbett et al. 2010, 2012, 2012a; Johnston et al. 2016; Bennett et al. 2016; Dobbin et al. 2021). All of these studies (100%) examine these demands within variations of SSG in professional (Gabbett et al. 2010, 2012, 2012a), semi-professional (Johnston et al. 2016) and junior rugby league training (Gabbett et al. 2012; Bennett et al. 2016; Dobbin et al. 2021) (Table 3). Five of these studies are included as part of investigations on the effects of SSG constraints on the physical demands including varying contact demands, manipulations of ‘on-side’ or ‘off-side’ rules and varying designs to elicit specific task loads (physical, technical, cognitive, frustration, temporal) (Gabbett et al. 2010, 2012, 2012a; Johnston et al. 2016; Dobbin et al. 2021). Findings from these studies showed more involvements (i.e., touches), total and effective passes in off-side SSG compared to on-side SSG (Gabbett et al. 2010), while contact manipulations did not compromise the volume of skill executions and errors (Gabbett et al. 2012a). Furthermore, subjective ratings of cognitive load (i.e. mental effort required to complete a task) were reported to be significantly greater during on-side SSG (Gabbett et al. 2010) while increasing the quantity of skill involvements can increase physical technical, cognitive and temporal task loads (Dobbin et al. 2021).

Table 3. Characteristics of studies examining the technical demands of on-field training drills in rugby league.

Study	Study Aims	Comp.	Participants = n	Observation period = n of training sessions	Files = n	Method	Technical Outcome Measures	Technical Demands of Training Results Overview
(Bennett et al. 2016)	To investigate the relationship between the skill demands of an ‘on-side’ SSG and match-play	Elite Junior	15	Competition phase = 1	NR	Video-coded (HDR-JP10E, Digital HD Video Camera Recorder, Sony, Japan)	Offensive involvements ([n.min^−1] ball carry, support run, line break, line break assist), defensive involvements ([n.min^−1] body in front), total involvements (n.min^−1)	Higher frequency of offensive involvements were recorded in the SSG than match-play (0.67 [0.17–0.67] n.min^−1 vs. 0.17 [0.14–0.25] n.min^−1). Defensive involvements were higher in SSG than match-play (0.67 [0.33–0.84] n.min^−1 vs. 0.22 [0.05–0.36] n.min^−1). Total skill involvements were higher in SSG than match-play (1.00 [0.67–1.50] n.min^−1 vs. 0.41 [0.26–0.52] n.min^−1).
(Dobbin et al. 2021)	To determine if SSGs could be designed to target specific task loads (physical, technical, temporal, cognitive, frustration) and quantify the subjective task loads via NASA-TLX task load questionnaire. Determine the association between physical and technical demands within each task load.	Elite Junior	26	NR = 1	130	Skill-notation (37-mm digital video camera, DCR-TRV 950E; Sony, Nagasaki, Japan)	Attacking involvement ([n] catches, catching errors, passes, passing errors), defensive involvements ([n] any purposeful contact made to stop any advancement of the ball carrier)	Technical load was emphasized during the technical SSG. Attacking and defensive involvements generally increased the respective task loads (ES: 0.03–0.41, −0.14–0.36 respectively).
(Gabbett et al. 2012)	To investigate the effect of field size changes on the physiological and skill demands on ‘off-side’ SSG	Elite Junior and NRL	Elite junior = 16 NRL = 16	Pre-competition phase = 2	NR	Skill-notation (37-mm digital video camera, DCR-TRV 950E; Sony, Nagasaki, Japan)	Total involvements (n), receives (n), catching errors (n), effective passes (n), ineffective passes (n), total passes (n), disposal efficiency (%)	No differences were observed between the SSG on small or large fields for the total involvements, receives, passes, effective passes, ineffective passes, and disposal efficiency. No differences were observed between junior and senior players.
(Gabbett et al. 2010)	To investigate the physical and skill demands of ‘on-side’ and ‘off-side’ SSG	NRL	16	Competition phase = 2	NR	Skill-notation (37-mm digital video camera, DCR-TRV 950E; Sony, Nagasaki, Japan)	Total involvements (n), receives (n), catching errors (n), effective passes (n), ineffective passes (n), total passes (n), disposal efficiency (%)	‘Off-side’ SSG has a greater number of total involvements (22.4 ± 1.8 vs 14.6 ± 1.4), passes (11.0 ± 0.9 vs. 5.0 ± 0.7) and effective passes (9.6 ± 0.7 vs. 4.5 ± 0.7) than ‘on-side’ SSG.
(Gabbett et al. 2012a)	To investigate the influence of wrestling on the physical and skill demands of SSG	NRL	28	Pre-competition phase = 2	NR	Skill-notation (37-mm digital video camera, DCR-TRV 950E; Sony, Nagasaki, Japan)	Total involvements (n), receives (n), catching errors (n), effective passes (n), ineffective passes (n), total passes (n), disposal efficiency (%)	No differences were observed between wrestle and non-wrestle SSG for the total number of involvements, receives, passes, effective passes, ineffective passes, and disposal efficiency. The number of players experiencing < 20 total involvements was higher in intermittent wrestle SSG than non-wrestle SSG. The number of players experiencing > 40 total involvements was higher in non-wrestle SSG than SSG with wrestle.
(Johnston et al. 2016)	To determine the impact of different RHIE bouts on running intensities, skill involvements, and neuromuscular fatigue during SSG.	QC	22	Pre-season = 4	NR	Video-coded (Cannon Legria HV40, Japan)	Total passes (n), effective passes (n, %), disposal efficiency (%), errors (n, %)	With the exception SSG following all-contact RHIE bouts, moderate increases in effective passes (%) was observed from SSG 1 to SSG 2. There was minimal change in total passes (n) between SSG 1 and SSG 2 after any of the RHIE bouts.

Results expressed as mean ± SD or median (interquartile range).

% percentage, comp. competition, ES effect size, ESL European Super League (professional), n number, n.min⁻¹ number per minute, NR not reported, NRL National Rugby League (professional), QC Queensland Cup (semi-professional), RHIE repeat high-intensity efforts, SSG small-sided games

Discussion

To the author’s knowledge, the present review is the first to scope the available literature on the physical, technical and tactical demands of rugby league training. The literature search identified 25 studies for review with the vast majority describing the physical demands of training. Six studies described the technical demands, five of which are included as part of investigating the effects of SSG constraints on the physical demands. No studies described the tactical demands of rugby league training. This highlights a clear gap in research investigating the various elements of rugby league performance in training. To further emphasise, a comparative search in the four online databases using the same terms relevant to the physical, technical and tactical demands in rugby league performance (‘rugby league’, ‘rugby league match*’, ‘rugby league performance’) returned 3455 papers to review, compared to the 612 papers yielded for this scoping review.

Physical demands

Physical capacity is important to rugby league performance as it underpins players’ ability to tackle (Gabbett et al. 2011; Speranza et al. 2017; Hollander et al. 2021), sprint (de Lacey et al. 2014) and endure high-intensity periods (Johnston et al. 2014) during match-play. Preparing for these physical demands is achieved by completing appropriate training, and at times replicating (or exceeding) the physical demands of match play and providing sufficient recovery before match play. Indeed, planning and monitoring the training demands within team sport has become the focal point for athlete management, injury prevention and preparation (Rogalski et al. 2013; Bartlett et al. 2016). As such, the development of practical athlete monitoring tools has allowed sports scientists to quantify the physical demands during training and match-play. While there are many approaches that have been used to achieve this (Borresen and Lambert 2009; Halson 2014), the application of wearable microtechnologies have become wide-spread across many team sports such as rugby league, providing spatiotemporal measures derived from GPS sensors (e.g., distance, speed, accelerations etc.) and information about collisions (Cummins and Orr 2015) and accumulative accelerometer load (i.e., ‘PlayerLoad’) (Gabbett 2015) via integrated inertial sensors (i.e., triaxial accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers). Although the use of microtechnologies to monitor training is current standard practice within professional rugby league, there is a relatively low number of studies (n = 24) available investigating the physical demands of on-field training. In comparison, the physical demands of rugby league match-play has been widely described, with systematic reviews and meta-analyses providing information on the physical demands (Cummins et al. 2013; Hausler et al. 2016; Glassbrook et al. 2019) and collision dose (Naughton et al. 2020). Additionally, there is available literature examining velocity and accelerometer-based variables between different positional groups (Sirotic et al. 2011; Austin and Kelly 2013), levels of competition (Sirotic et al. 2009; Gabbett 2013a, 2014b; Whitehead et al. 2021) and successful and unsuccessful teams (Gabbett 2013b; Hulin et al. 2015; Kempton et al. 2016) in match-play. While such information can guide performance strategies (e.g., player interchange during match-play (Glassbrook et al. 2019)), inform training and player preparation strategies (e.g., training load prescription and monitoring), and player development pathways (Hausler et al. 2016), the relationship between physical performance and successful match outcomes remains unclear (Gabbett 2013b; Hulin et al. 2015). Accordingly, it is difficult to objectively evaluate individual physical performances and match outcomes. Moreover, a case study has reported variations of physical parameters between matches, finding large variations of high speed (CV 14.6%) and very high speed running (CV 37.9%) between matches (Kempton et al. 2013) possibly influenced by contextual factors such as opposition, match location, physical capacity and opposition (Rampinini et al. 2007; Gregson et al. 2010). This has been further substantiated by a league-wide investigation (i.e., involving 11 professional teams across 2 seasons) into the sources (i.e., within-player and between-player, -position, -match, and -team) of variability in the physical demands across the overall and various phases-of-play. The findings identified large within- and between-player variability, as well as large differences between playing positions in total and high-speed running (HSR) distance (CV > 10%) (Dalton-Barron et al. 2021). With the exception of five studies that included technical descriptions of rugby league SSG, studies within this review have not included technical and tactical aspects, (factors which have been suggested to contribute to successful performance (Dobbin et al. 2021)) and contextual factors warranting further investigation.

This review identified a small number of studies investigating the physical demands of rugby league training throughout the whole competition season phase (n = 5). These studies be can be utilised as references to inform macro-level (seasonal and weekly) periodisation and recovery strategies (e.g., the gradual introduction of collisions in pre-season training due to the higher rate of collision injuries) and inform game-specific physical conditioning programs for whole teams and positional groups (i.e., SSG and conditioning drills). However, they do not provide a detailed description on the physical demands of numerous team-based training drills also prescribed for tactical preparation within training sessions. For example, these drills can be designed to form positional structures, execute set-plays against specific oppositions and practice within varying scenarios. This information is important for a holistic approach to training designs and preparation by understanding the preparation of strategies (i.e., game plan), formations and decision-making for upcoming oppositions. The majority of studies included in this review present descriptions (i.e., means and dispersions) of the physical demands of rugby league training. Of these studies, 1 paper assessed the variability of external training loads due to between-match microcycle length, between individual players and head coach (Parmley et al. 2022). While this information can be useful to understand and assess systematic changes that may occur, assessing the variability of physical activity measures within discrete training drills (e.g., training drill variability) may provide additional insight into variations that may exist as a result of manipulations within the coaches’ prescription, external influences such as upcoming opposition, constraints (i.e., field dimensions, duration and number of participants) and level of competition. Collectively, future research investigating the physical, technical and tactical demands and assessing the variability of professional rugby league training drills designed for tactical preparation is warranted.

Technical demands

It is essential that team sport athletes acquire the technical ability to efficiently perform and execute the planned tactical strategies in high pressure environments (Whitehead et al. 2021). This includes possessing expertise in skills such as passing, kicking, play-the-balls, wrestling and tackling (Hendricks et al. 2015) within both attacking and defensive moments of play. Poor execution of these technical skills can lead to errors and penalties resulting in a turnover of possession to the opposition (Kempton et al. 2013). Indeed, it has been shown that more than 65% of tries were scored following opposition errors and penalties within the professional competition (Kempton et al. 2016). It has also been demonstrated that successful teams are likely to commit fewer errors, fewer missed tackles, obtain a greater effective tackle percentage and higher frequency of play-the-balls compared to their less successful counterparts (Kempton et al. 2016; Gabbett and Hulin 2018). Sports science practitioners and coaches can utilise this information to influence training design so players manage the technical demands required during performance and can modify competition matches to enhance skill involvement and assist in the development pathways (Whitehead et al. 2021). While this highlights the purported importance of technical performance to successful match outcomes, the technical demands within training are not well reported.

Currently, only six studies described the technical demands of rugby league training, providing information such as skill involvements, passes and errors within one category of drills (i.e., SSG). While SSG can be utilised for preparation by manipulating constraints (e.g., field size) (Zanin et al. 2021), and eliciting physical and technical demands and adaptations in a context closely reflecting match performance (Coutts et al. 2007; Kelly and Drust 2008; Dellal et al. 2011), it does not reflect the majority of drills designed and implemented for team preparation within professional rugby league training. Despite advancements in video analysis frameworks for tackling in rugby league (Hopkinson et al. 2021) and skill acquisition periodisation frameworks (SAP) aimed at assisting coaches in measuring, monitoring and evaluating skill training in team sports (Farrow and Robertson 2016), these frameworks have not been utilised in research on the technical demands of rugby league training. Future investigations is needed to assess the technical demands of various training drills, particularly in drills designed to understand how teams technically prepare through team drills designed for tactical preparation. Such examinations would provide coaches with objective evidence to compliment or challenge subjective evaluations and may assist in decision making regarding skill development and maintenance. Indeed, applying a technical framework independent of any physical or tactical components, would limit the design and monitoring process to a unidimensional approach to optimise preparation. Ideally, future research should integrate a holistic monitoring framework comprising of the physical, technical and tactical elements of performance.

Tactical performance

During rugby league performance, 17 individual players must cooperatively interact to execute team strategies (i.e., implemented game plan) (Kaya 2014) and respond to the opposition by showing specific structural, spatial and dynamic properties in an organised manner (Ribeiro et al. 2017). Team strategies will often adhere to the principles and style of play preferred by the head coach, or coaching teams (Hewitt et al. 2016). Ultimately, it is the strategic intent of training that will influence the physical and technical requirements of match play and training. Measuring tactical performance within rugby league has also received increased scientific interest, with recent studies explaining match success using team tactical performance indicators (Gabbett 2014a; Kempton et al. 2016; Woods et al. 2017; Wedding et al. 2021b, 2021a; Whitehead et al. 2021). Woods et al. (2017). identified five performance indicators; try assists, all run metres, try assists, offloads, line breaks and dummy half runs that explained 66% of losses and 91% of wins within the NRL competition. Additionally, longitudinal analysis has revealed teams that placed an emphasis on attacking play (i.e., all run metres, run metres, hit-ups, passes, post-contact metres) and line breaks with relative defensive efficiency (reduced conceded line breaks) had the greatest likelihood of success in the NRL competition (Wedding et al. 2021b). Research also examined technical-tactical performance indicators to explain differences between competition levels within the Australian competition (i.e., NRL vs. National Youth Competition (NYC)) (Woods et al. 2018) and between professional league profiles (i.e., ESL vs. NRL) (Woods et al. 2018) to inform talent recruitment and player transitions. Specifically, players in the ESL generated more line breaks, errors, tackles and all metres run compared to their NRL counterparts (Woods et al. 2018), with all meters run, tackle breaks and tackle indicators differentiating between playing levels within the Australian competition (Woods et al. 2018).

While research has identified the importance of tactics to successful rugby league performance and implications for game strategies, player capabilities and player development, to date, there has been no investigations on the tactical demands within rugby league training. Consequently, it is unclear how coaches meet their tactical objectives within training drills and training design to prepare for competition. The lack of studies in this area identifies a clear gap within sports science research and can be utilised to steer future research questions and designs. It is recognised that solely reporting technical-tactical performance indicators and outcomes of training drills may pose challenges to the generalisability of the findings (as these may be influenced by the game model implemented by the coach). Therefore, future research may adopt a multi-club approach to describe and understand the variation of these indicators between players, teams and coaches. However, it’s important to acknowledge that such an approach may encounter logistical and feasibility issues due to the coordination required across multiple clubs. Alternatively, future investigations examining and describing current preparation approaches by coaches (e.g., tactical periodisation) implemented within rugby league would provide insight into how coaches plan and deliver training sessions to meet tactical objectives and prepare for competition through a multidimensional and holistic training and periodisation approach.

Limitations

Despite considerable attention devoted to methodological rigor in this scoping review, it is acknowledged that relevant manuscripts may exist from databases not systematically explored or identified through the applied search terms. Additionally, it is important to note that relevant papers examining the physical, technical and tactical demands of on-field training drills in rugby league may exist in languages other than English. A limitation of this review is the absence of a pre-registration protocol. While attempts to enhance rigor in this research and findings offer valuable insights, the absence of pre-registration may impact the perception of transparency. Another limitation of this review is the omission of internal load measures, such as heart rate variability or session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE). Accordingly, it is acknowledged this review may have overlooked insights into the physiological stress experiences by rugby league players during various training activities.

Conclusion

The present review was the first to scope peer-reviewed literature on the physical, technical and tactical demands of rugby league training. Based on the screening process, a total of 25 manuscripts were included for review. The vast majority of identified research examined the physical demands of various rugby league training drills within pre-season phases. Indeed, this may be due to the proficiency of quantifying these demands via routine athlete and training load monitoring within rugby league. With the exception of five studies that included technical descriptions of rugby league SSG, studies investigating the physical demands of rugby league training do not include other important performance aspects such as technical and tactical demands. Additionally, there is limited descriptions of the team-based training drills often implemented by coaches for tactical preparation. The technical and tactical demands within rugby league training are not well reported, with six studies examining the technical demands within one category of training drill (i.e., SSG), and no studies reporting on the tactical demands. While a systematic search of studies investigating the physical, technical and tactical demands of rugby league training was conducted, it is acknowledged that other studies may exist that were not identified by the search terms. This scoping review summarises the current literature and key findings that can be used guide future research directions and designs. It is apparent the multifaceted demands (physical, technical and tactical) of rugby league training is under-researched.

List of Abbreviations

Table

2D	2-dimensional
Adj.	Adjustables
AU	Arbitrary Units
Comp.	Competition
CI	Confidence Interval
CV	Coefficient of Variation
ES	Effect Size
ESL	European Super League
F	Forwards
g	g-force
GPS	Global Positioning System
HMP	High-metabolic power
HSR	High-speed running
HUF	Hit-up forwards
Hz	Hertz
IFT	Intermittent fitness test
KPC	Kingston Press Championship
m	Metre
Min	Minute
n	Number
NR	Not reported
NRL	National Rugby League
NYC	National Youth Competition
OB	Outside Backs
PRISMA-ScR	Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews
QC	Queensland Cup
RHIE	Repeated high-intensity effort
s	Second
sRPE	Session rating of perceived exertion
SD	Standard Deviation
SSG	Small-sided games
VHSR	Very high-speed running
W	Watts
WRF	Wide-running forwards

Availability of data and material

The datasets used and/or analysed during this review are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Authors contributions

JW, AC and KS conceptualised the review. JW and AC proposed the search strategy, screened and categorised the studies. JW led the data charting and synthesis with significant contributions from AC and KS. JW prepared the manuscript. All authors revised, read and approved the final manuscript.

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/24733938.2024.2369526.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.